fix: remove initdb image layer optimization

the oldest commit I checked not to have a working initdb image layer optimization was 4b25b9652a more a year ago. it is safe to say we have been doing fine without it.
Lsn for get_timestamp_of_lsn should be string, not integer (#5840 )
2026-01-18 10:52:55 +00:00 · 2023-11-09 20:45:40 +00:00 · 2023-11-09 16:12:18 +00:00 · 2023-11-09 16:02:59 +00:00 · 2023-11-09 10:47:03 -05:00 · 2023-11-09 16:40:52 +02:00
392 changed files with 48939 additions and 18505 deletions
--- a/.config/hakari.toml
+++ b/.config/hakari.toml
@@ -22,5 +22,11 @@ platforms = [
    # "x86_64-pc-windows-msvc",
 ]

+[final-excludes]
+# vm_monitor benefits from the same Cargo.lock as the rest of our artifacts, but
+# it is built primarly in separate repo neondatabase/autoscaling and thus is excluded
+# from depending on workspace-hack because most of the dependencies are not used.
+workspace-members = ["vm_monitor"]
+
 # Write out exact versions rather than a semver range. (Defaults to false.)
 # exact-versions = true
--- a/.dockerignore
+++ b/.dockerignore
@@ -14,10 +14,12 @@
 !pgxn/
 !proxy/
 !safekeeper/
+!s3_scrubber/
 !storage_broker/
 !trace/
 !vendor/postgres-v14/
 !vendor/postgres-v15/
+!vendor/postgres-v16/
 !workspace_hack/
 !neon_local/
 !scripts/ninstall.sh
--- a/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/epic-template.md
+++ b/.github/ISSUE_TEMPLATE/epic-template.md
@@ -17,8 +17,9 @@ assignees: ''
 ## Implementation ideas


-## Tasks
- [ ]
+```[tasklist]
+### Tasks
+```


 ## Other related tasks and Epics
--- a/.github/actionlint.yml
+++ b/.github/actionlint.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+self-hosted-runner:
+  labels:
+    - gen3
+    - large
+    - small
+    - us-east-2
+config-variables:
+  - REMOTE_STORAGE_AZURE_CONTAINER
+  - REMOTE_STORAGE_AZURE_REGION
+  - SLACK_UPCOMING_RELEASE_CHANNEL_ID
--- a/.github/actions/allure-report-generate/action.yml
+++ b/.github/actions/allure-report-generate/action.yml
@@ -76,8 +76,8 @@ runs:
          rm -f ${ALLURE_ZIP}
        fi
      env:
-        ALLURE_VERSION: 2.23.1
-        ALLURE_ZIP_SHA256: 11141bfe727504b3fd80c0f9801eb317407fd0ac983ebb57e671f14bac4bcd86
+        ALLURE_VERSION: 2.24.0
+        ALLURE_ZIP_SHA256: 60b1d6ce65d9ef24b23cf9c2c19fd736a123487c38e54759f1ed1a7a77353c90

    # Potentially we could have several running build for the same key (for example, for the main branch), so we use improvised lock for this
    - name: Acquire lock
@@ -203,6 +203,10 @@ runs:
        COMMIT_SHA: ${{ github.event.pull_request.head.sha || github.sha }}
        BASE_S3_URL: ${{ steps.generate-report.outputs.base-s3-url }}
      run: |
+        if [ ! -d "${WORKDIR}/report/data/test-cases" ]; then
+          exit 0
+        fi
+
        export DATABASE_URL=${REGRESS_TEST_RESULT_CONNSTR_NEW}

        ./scripts/pysync
--- a/.github/actions/run-python-test-set/action.yml
+++ b/.github/actions/run-python-test-set/action.yml
@@ -70,6 +70,9 @@ runs:
        name: compatibility-snapshot-${{ inputs.build_type }}-pg${{ inputs.pg_version }}
        path: /tmp/compatibility_snapshot_pg${{ inputs.pg_version }}
        prefix: latest
+        # The lack of compatibility snapshot (for example, for the new Postgres version)
+        # shouldn't fail the whole job. Only relevant test should fail.
+        skip-if-does-not-exist: true

    - name: Checkout
      if: inputs.needs_postgres_source == 'true'
@@ -145,7 +148,11 @@ runs:

        if [ "${RERUN_FLAKY}" == "true" ]; then
          mkdir -p $TEST_OUTPUT
-          poetry run ./scripts/flaky_tests.py "${TEST_RESULT_CONNSTR}" --days 10 --output "$TEST_OUTPUT/flaky.json"
+          poetry run ./scripts/flaky_tests.py "${TEST_RESULT_CONNSTR}" \
+                                              --days 7 \
+                                              --output "$TEST_OUTPUT/flaky.json" \
+                                              --pg-version "${DEFAULT_PG_VERSION}" \
+                                              --build-type "${BUILD_TYPE}"

          EXTRA_PARAMS="--flaky-tests-json $TEST_OUTPUT/flaky.json $EXTRA_PARAMS"
        fi
--- a/.github/workflows/actionlint.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/actionlint.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+name: Lint GitHub Workflows
+
+on:
+  push:
+    branches:
+      - main
+      - release
+    paths:
+      - '.github/workflows/*.ya?ml'
+  pull_request:
+    paths:
+      - '.github/workflows/*.ya?ml'
+
+concurrency:
+  group: ${{ github.workflow }}-${{ github.ref }}
+  cancel-in-progress: ${{ github.event_name == 'pull_request' }}
+
+jobs:
+  actionlint:
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    steps:
+      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+      - uses: reviewdog/action-actionlint@v1
+        env:
+          # SC2046 - Quote this to prevent word splitting. - https://www.shellcheck.net/wiki/SC2046
+          # SC2086 - Double quote to prevent globbing and word splitting. - https://www.shellcheck.net/wiki/SC2086
+          SHELLCHECK_OPTS: --exclude=SC2046,SC2086
+        with:
+          fail_on_error: true
+          filter_mode: nofilter
+          level: error
--- a/.github/workflows/approved-for-ci-run.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/approved-for-ci-run.yml
@@ -2,7 +2,9 @@ name: Handle `approved-for-ci-run` label
 # This workflow helps to run CI pipeline for PRs made by external contributors (from forks).

 on:
-  pull_request:
+  pull_request_target:
+    branches:
+      - main
    types:
      # Default types that triggers a workflow ([1]):
      # - [1] https://docs.github.com/en/actions/using-workflows/events-that-trigger-workflows#pull_request
@@ -14,42 +16,103 @@ on:
      # Actual magic happens here:
      - labeled

+concurrency:
+  group: ${{ github.workflow }}-${{ github.event.pull_request.number }}
+
 env:
  GH_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}
  PR_NUMBER: ${{ github.event.pull_request.number }}
+  BRANCH: "ci-run/pr-${{ github.event.pull_request.number }}"
+
+# No permission for GITHUB_TOKEN by default; the **minimal required** set of permissions should be granted in each job.
+permissions: {}
+
+defaults:
+  run:
+    shell: bash -euo pipefail {0}

 jobs:
  remove-label:
    # Remove `approved-for-ci-run` label if the workflow is triggered by changes in a PR.
    # The PR should be reviewed and labelled manually again.

-    runs-on: [ ubuntu-latest ]
+    permissions:
+      pull-requests: write # For `gh pr edit`

    if: |
      contains(fromJSON('["opened", "synchronize", "reopened", "closed"]'), github.event.action) &&
      contains(github.event.pull_request.labels.*.name, 'approved-for-ci-run')

+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+
    steps:
      - run: gh pr --repo "${GITHUB_REPOSITORY}" edit "${PR_NUMBER}" --remove-label "approved-for-ci-run"

-  create-branch:
-    # Create a local branch for an `approved-for-ci-run` labelled PR to run CI pipeline in it.
+  create-or-update-pr-for-ci-run:
+    # Create local PR for an `approved-for-ci-run` labelled PR to run CI pipeline in it.

-    runs-on: [ ubuntu-latest ]
+    permissions:
+      pull-requests: write # for `gh pr edit`
+      # For `git push` and `gh pr create` we use CI_ACCESS_TOKEN

    if: |
      github.event.action == 'labeled' &&
      contains(github.event.pull_request.labels.*.name, 'approved-for-ci-run')

+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+
    steps:
      - run: gh pr --repo "${GITHUB_REPOSITORY}" edit "${PR_NUMBER}" --remove-label "approved-for-ci-run"

      - uses: actions/checkout@v3
        with:
          ref: main
+          token: ${{ secrets.CI_ACCESS_TOKEN }}

      - run: gh pr checkout "${PR_NUMBER}"

-      - run: git checkout -b "ci-run/pr-${PR_NUMBER}"
+      - run: git checkout -b "${BRANCH}"

-      - run: git push --force origin "ci-run/pr-${PR_NUMBER}"
+      - run: git push --force origin "${BRANCH}"
+
+      - name: Create a Pull Request for CI run (if required)
+        env:
+          GH_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.CI_ACCESS_TOKEN }}
+        run: |
+          cat << EOF > body.md
+            This Pull Request is created automatically to run the CI pipeline for #${PR_NUMBER}
+
+            Please do not alter or merge/close it.
+
+            Feel free to review/comment/discuss the original PR #${PR_NUMBER}.
+          EOF
+
+          ALREADY_CREATED="$(gh pr --repo ${GITHUB_REPOSITORY} list --head ${BRANCH} --base main --json number --jq '.[].number')"
+          if [ -z "${ALREADY_CREATED}" ]; then
+            gh pr --repo "${GITHUB_REPOSITORY}" create --title "CI run for PR #${PR_NUMBER}" \
+                                                       --body-file "body.md" \
+                                                       --head "${BRANCH}" \
+                                                       --base "main" \
+                                                       --draft
+          fi
+
+  cleanup:
+    # Close PRs and delete branchs if the original PR is closed.
+
+    permissions:
+      contents: write # for `--delete-branch` flag in `gh pr close`
+      pull-requests: write # for `gh pr close`
+
+    if: |
+      github.event.action == 'closed' &&
+      github.event.pull_request.head.repo.full_name != github.repository
+
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+
+    steps:
+      - name: Close PR and delete `ci-run/pr-${{ env.PR_NUMBER }}` branch
+        run: |
+          CLOSED="$(gh pr --repo ${GITHUB_REPOSITORY} list --head ${BRANCH} --json 'closed' --jq '.[].closed')"
+          if [ "${CLOSED}" == "false" ]; then
+            gh pr --repo "${GITHUB_REPOSITORY}" close "${BRANCH}" --delete-branch
+          fi
--- a/.github/workflows/benchmarking.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/benchmarking.yml
@@ -117,6 +117,7 @@ jobs:
    outputs:
      pgbench-compare-matrix: ${{ steps.pgbench-compare-matrix.outputs.matrix }}
      olap-compare-matrix: ${{ steps.olap-compare-matrix.outputs.matrix }}
+      tpch-compare-matrix: ${{ steps.tpch-compare-matrix.outputs.matrix }}

    steps:
    - name: Generate matrix for pgbench benchmark
@@ -136,11 +137,11 @@ jobs:
        }'

        if [ "$(date +%A)" = "Saturday" ]; then
-          matrix=$(echo $matrix | jq '.include += [{ "platform": "rds-postgres", "db_size": "10gb"},
+          matrix=$(echo "$matrix" | jq '.include += [{ "platform": "rds-postgres", "db_size": "10gb"},
                                                   { "platform": "rds-aurora",   "db_size": "50gb"}]')
        fi

-        echo "matrix=$(echo $matrix | jq --compact-output '.')" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT
+        echo "matrix=$(echo "$matrix" | jq --compact-output '.')" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT

    - name: Generate matrix for OLAP benchmarks
      id: olap-compare-matrix
@@ -152,11 +153,30 @@ jobs:
        }'

        if [ "$(date +%A)" = "Saturday" ]; then
-          matrix=$(echo $matrix | jq '.include += [{ "platform": "rds-postgres" },
+          matrix=$(echo "$matrix" | jq '.include += [{ "platform": "rds-postgres" },
                                                   { "platform": "rds-aurora"   }]')
        fi

-        echo "matrix=$(echo $matrix | jq --compact-output '.')" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT
+        echo "matrix=$(echo "$matrix" | jq --compact-output '.')" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT
+
+    - name: Generate matrix for TPC-H benchmarks
+      id: tpch-compare-matrix
+      run: |
+        matrix='{
+          "platform": [
+            "neon-captest-reuse"
+          ],
+          "scale": [
+            "10"
+          ]
+        }'
+
+        if [ "$(date +%A)" = "Saturday" ]; then
+          matrix=$(echo "$matrix" | jq '.include += [{ "platform": "rds-postgres", "scale": "10" },
+                                                   { "platform": "rds-aurora",   "scale": "10" }]')
+        fi
+
+        echo "matrix=$(echo "$matrix" | jq --compact-output '.')" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT

  pgbench-compare:
    needs: [ generate-matrices ]
@@ -233,7 +253,11 @@ jobs:

        echo "connstr=${CONNSTR}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT

-        psql ${CONNSTR} -c "SELECT version();"
+        QUERY="SELECT version();"
+        if [[ "${PLATFORM}" = "neon"* ]]; then
+          QUERY="${QUERY} SHOW neon.tenant_id; SHOW neon.timeline_id;"
+        fi
+        psql ${CONNSTR} -c "${QUERY}"

    - name: Benchmark init
      uses: ./.github/actions/run-python-test-set
@@ -358,7 +382,11 @@ jobs:

        echo "connstr=${CONNSTR}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT

-        psql ${CONNSTR} -c "SELECT version();"
+        QUERY="SELECT version();"
+        if [[ "${PLATFORM}" = "neon"* ]]; then
+          QUERY="${QUERY} SHOW neon.tenant_id; SHOW neon.timeline_id;"
+        fi
+        psql ${CONNSTR} -c "${QUERY}"

    - name: ClickBench benchmark
      uses: ./.github/actions/run-python-test-set
@@ -372,6 +400,7 @@ jobs:
        VIP_VAP_ACCESS_TOKEN: "${{ secrets.VIP_VAP_ACCESS_TOKEN }}"
        PERF_TEST_RESULT_CONNSTR: "${{ secrets.PERF_TEST_RESULT_CONNSTR }}"
        BENCHMARK_CONNSTR: ${{ steps.set-up-connstr.outputs.connstr }}
+        TEST_OLAP_SCALE: 10

    - name: Create Allure report
      if: ${{ !cancelled() }}
@@ -398,7 +427,7 @@ jobs:

    strategy:
      fail-fast: false
-      matrix: ${{ fromJson(needs.generate-matrices.outputs.olap-compare-matrix) }}
+      matrix: ${{ fromJson(needs.generate-matrices.outputs.tpch-compare-matrix) }}

    env:
      POSTGRES_DISTRIB_DIR: /tmp/neon/pg_install
@@ -407,6 +436,7 @@ jobs:
      BUILD_TYPE: remote
      SAVE_PERF_REPORT: ${{ github.event.inputs.save_perf_report || ( github.ref_name == 'main' ) }}
      PLATFORM: ${{ matrix.platform }}
+      TEST_OLAP_SCALE: ${{ matrix.scale }}

    runs-on: [ self-hosted, us-east-2, x64 ]
    container:
@@ -428,18 +458,17 @@ jobs:
        ${POSTGRES_DISTRIB_DIR}/v${DEFAULT_PG_VERSION}/bin/pgbench --version
        echo "${POSTGRES_DISTRIB_DIR}/v${DEFAULT_PG_VERSION}/bin" >> $GITHUB_PATH

-    - name: Set up Connection String
-      id: set-up-connstr
+    - name: Get Connstring Secret Name
      run: |
        case "${PLATFORM}" in
          neon-captest-reuse)
-            CONNSTR=${{ secrets.BENCHMARK_CAPTEST_TPCH_S10_CONNSTR }}
+            ENV_PLATFORM=CAPTEST_TPCH
            ;;
          rds-aurora)
-            CONNSTR=${{ secrets.BENCHMARK_RDS_AURORA_TPCH_S10_CONNSTR }}
+            ENV_PLATFORM=RDS_AURORA_TPCH
            ;;
          rds-postgres)
-            CONNSTR=${{ secrets.BENCHMARK_RDS_POSTGRES_TPCH_S10_CONNSTR }}
+            ENV_PLATFORM=RDS_AURORA_TPCH
            ;;
          *)
            echo >&2 "Unknown PLATFORM=${PLATFORM}. Allowed only 'neon-captest-reuse', 'rds-aurora', or 'rds-postgres'"
@@ -447,9 +476,21 @@ jobs:
            ;;
        esac

+        CONNSTR_SECRET_NAME="BENCHMARK_${ENV_PLATFORM}_S${TEST_OLAP_SCALE}_CONNSTR"
+        echo "CONNSTR_SECRET_NAME=${CONNSTR_SECRET_NAME}" >> $GITHUB_ENV
+
+    - name: Set up Connection String
+      id: set-up-connstr
+      run: |
+        CONNSTR=${{ secrets[env.CONNSTR_SECRET_NAME] }}
+
        echo "connstr=${CONNSTR}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT

-        psql ${CONNSTR} -c "SELECT version();"
+        QUERY="SELECT version();"
+        if [[ "${PLATFORM}" = "neon"* ]]; then
+          QUERY="${QUERY} SHOW neon.tenant_id; SHOW neon.timeline_id;"
+        fi
+        psql ${CONNSTR} -c "${QUERY}"

    - name: Run TPC-H benchmark
      uses: ./.github/actions/run-python-test-set
@@ -463,6 +504,7 @@ jobs:
        VIP_VAP_ACCESS_TOKEN: "${{ secrets.VIP_VAP_ACCESS_TOKEN }}"
        PERF_TEST_RESULT_CONNSTR: "${{ secrets.PERF_TEST_RESULT_CONNSTR }}"
        BENCHMARK_CONNSTR: ${{ steps.set-up-connstr.outputs.connstr }}
+        TEST_OLAP_SCALE: ${{ matrix.scale }}

    - name: Create Allure report
      if: ${{ !cancelled() }}
@@ -534,7 +576,11 @@ jobs:

        echo "connstr=${CONNSTR}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT

-        psql ${CONNSTR} -c "SELECT version();"
+        QUERY="SELECT version();"
+        if [[ "${PLATFORM}" = "neon"* ]]; then
+          QUERY="${QUERY} SHOW neon.tenant_id; SHOW neon.timeline_id;"
+        fi
+        psql ${CONNSTR} -c "${QUERY}"

    - name: Run user examples
      uses: ./.github/actions/run-python-test-set
--- a/.github/workflows/build_and_test.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/build_and_test.yml
@@ -5,7 +5,6 @@ on:
    branches:
      - main
      - release
-      - ci-run/pr-*
  pull_request:

 defaults:
@@ -24,7 +23,30 @@ env:
  AWS_SECRET_ACCESS_KEY: ${{ secrets.AWS_SECRET_KEY_DEV }}

 jobs:
+  check-permissions:
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+
+    steps:
+    - name: Disallow PRs from forks
+      if: |
+        github.event_name == 'pull_request' &&
+        github.event.pull_request.head.repo.full_name != github.repository
+
+      run: |
+        if [ "${{ contains(fromJSON('["OWNER", "MEMBER", "COLLABORATOR"]'), github.event.pull_request.author_association) }}" = "true" ]; then
+          MESSAGE="Please create a PR from a branch of ${GITHUB_REPOSITORY} instead of a fork"
+        else
+          MESSAGE="The PR should be reviewed and labelled with 'approved-for-ci-run' to trigger a CI run"
+        fi
+
+        echo >&2 "We don't run CI for PRs from forks"
+        echo >&2 "${MESSAGE}"
+
+        exit 1
+
+
  tag:
+    needs: [ check-permissions ]
    runs-on: [ self-hosted, gen3, small ]
    container: 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/base:pinned
    outputs:
@@ -53,6 +75,7 @@ jobs:
        id: build-tag

  check-codestyle-python:
+    needs: [ check-permissions ]
    runs-on: [ self-hosted, gen3, small ]
    container:
      image: 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/rust:pinned
@@ -85,6 +108,7 @@ jobs:
        run: poetry run mypy .

  check-codestyle-rust:
+    needs: [ check-permissions ]
    runs-on: [ self-hosted, gen3, large ]
    container:
      image: 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/rust:pinned
@@ -151,6 +175,7 @@ jobs:
        run: cargo deny check

  build-neon:
+    needs: [ check-permissions ]
    runs-on: [ self-hosted, gen3, large ]
    container:
      image: 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/rust:pinned
@@ -187,7 +212,7 @@ jobs:
          # Eventually it will be replaced by a regression test https://github.com/neondatabase/neon/pull/4603

          FAILED=false
-          for postgres in postgres-v14 postgres-v15; do
+          for postgres in postgres-v14 postgres-v15 postgres-v16; do
            expected=$(cat vendor/revisions.json | jq --raw-output '."'"${postgres}"'"')
            actual=$(git rev-parse "HEAD:vendor/${postgres}")
            if [ "${expected}" != "${actual}" ]; then
@@ -209,6 +234,10 @@ jobs:
        id: pg_v15_rev
        run: echo pg_rev=$(git rev-parse HEAD:vendor/postgres-v15) >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT

+      - name: Set pg 16 revision for caching
+        id: pg_v16_rev
+        run: echo pg_rev=$(git rev-parse HEAD:vendor/postgres-v16) >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT
+
      # Set some environment variables used by all the steps.
      #
      # CARGO_FLAGS is extra options to pass to "cargo build", "cargo test" etc.
@@ -229,10 +258,12 @@ jobs:
            cov_prefix=""
            CARGO_FLAGS="--locked --release"
          fi
-          echo "cov_prefix=${cov_prefix}" >> $GITHUB_ENV
-          echo "CARGO_FEATURES=${CARGO_FEATURES}" >> $GITHUB_ENV
-          echo "CARGO_FLAGS=${CARGO_FLAGS}" >> $GITHUB_ENV
-          echo "CARGO_HOME=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/.cargo" >> $GITHUB_ENV
+          {
+            echo "cov_prefix=${cov_prefix}"
+            echo "CARGO_FEATURES=${CARGO_FEATURES}"
+            echo "CARGO_FLAGS=${CARGO_FLAGS}"
+            echo "CARGO_HOME=${GITHUB_WORKSPACE}/.cargo"
+          } >> $GITHUB_ENV

      # Disabled for now
      # Don't include the ~/.cargo/registry/src directory. It contains just
@@ -267,6 +298,13 @@ jobs:
          path: pg_install/v15
          key: v1-${{ runner.os }}-${{ matrix.build_type }}-pg-${{ steps.pg_v15_rev.outputs.pg_rev }}-${{ hashFiles('Makefile') }}

+      - name: Cache postgres v16 build
+        id: cache_pg_16
+        uses: actions/cache@v3
+        with:
+          path: pg_install/v16
+          key: v1-${{ runner.os }}-${{ matrix.build_type }}-pg-${{ steps.pg_v16_rev.outputs.pg_rev }}-${{ hashFiles('Makefile') }}
+
      - name: Build postgres v14
        if: steps.cache_pg_14.outputs.cache-hit != 'true'
        run: mold -run make postgres-v14 -j$(nproc)
@@ -275,9 +313,16 @@ jobs:
        if: steps.cache_pg_15.outputs.cache-hit != 'true'
        run: mold -run make postgres-v15 -j$(nproc)

+      - name: Build postgres v16
+        if: steps.cache_pg_16.outputs.cache-hit != 'true'
+        run: mold -run make postgres-v16 -j$(nproc)
+
      - name: Build neon extensions
        run: mold -run make neon-pg-ext -j$(nproc)

+      - name: Build walproposer-lib
+        run: mold -run make walproposer-lib -j$(nproc)
+
      - name: Run cargo build
        run: |
          ${cov_prefix} mold -run cargo build $CARGO_FLAGS $CARGO_FEATURES --bins --tests
@@ -293,6 +338,16 @@ jobs:
          # Avoid `$CARGO_FEATURES` since there's no `testing` feature in the e2e tests now
          ${cov_prefix} cargo test $CARGO_FLAGS --package remote_storage --test test_real_s3

+          # Run separate tests for real Azure Blob Storage
+          # XXX: replace region with `eu-central-1`-like region
+          export ENABLE_REAL_AZURE_REMOTE_STORAGE=y
+          export AZURE_STORAGE_ACCOUNT="${{ secrets.AZURE_STORAGE_ACCOUNT_DEV }}"
+          export AZURE_STORAGE_ACCESS_KEY="${{ secrets.AZURE_STORAGE_ACCESS_KEY_DEV }}"
+          export REMOTE_STORAGE_AZURE_CONTAINER="${{ vars.REMOTE_STORAGE_AZURE_CONTAINER }}"
+          export REMOTE_STORAGE_AZURE_REGION="${{ vars.REMOTE_STORAGE_AZURE_REGION }}"
+          # Avoid `$CARGO_FEATURES` since there's no `testing` feature in the e2e tests now
+          ${cov_prefix} cargo test $CARGO_FLAGS --package remote_storage --test test_real_azure
+
      - name: Install rust binaries
        run: |
          # Install target binaries
@@ -348,17 +403,17 @@ jobs:
        uses: ./.github/actions/save-coverage-data

  regress-tests:
+    needs: [ check-permissions, build-neon ]
    runs-on: [ self-hosted, gen3, large ]
    container:
      image: 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/rust:pinned
      # Default shared memory is 64mb
      options: --init --shm-size=512mb
-    needs: [ build-neon ]
    strategy:
      fail-fast: false
      matrix:
        build_type: [ debug, release ]
-        pg_version: [ v14, v15 ]
+        pg_version: [ v14, v15, v16 ]
    steps:
      - name: Checkout
        uses: actions/checkout@v3
@@ -378,7 +433,7 @@ jobs:
          rerun_flaky: true
          pg_version: ${{ matrix.pg_version }}
        env:
-          TEST_RESULT_CONNSTR: ${{ secrets.REGRESS_TEST_RESULT_CONNSTR }}
+          TEST_RESULT_CONNSTR: ${{ secrets.REGRESS_TEST_RESULT_CONNSTR_NEW }}
          CHECK_ONDISK_DATA_COMPATIBILITY: nonempty

      - name: Merge and upload coverage data
@@ -386,12 +441,12 @@ jobs:
        uses: ./.github/actions/save-coverage-data

  benchmarks:
+    needs: [ check-permissions, build-neon ]
    runs-on: [ self-hosted, gen3, small ]
    container:
      image: 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/rust:pinned
      # Default shared memory is 64mb
      options: --init --shm-size=512mb
-    needs: [ build-neon ]
    if: github.ref_name == 'main' || contains(github.event.pull_request.labels.*.name, 'run-benchmarks')
    strategy:
      fail-fast: false
@@ -413,17 +468,18 @@ jobs:
        env:
          VIP_VAP_ACCESS_TOKEN: "${{ secrets.VIP_VAP_ACCESS_TOKEN }}"
          PERF_TEST_RESULT_CONNSTR: "${{ secrets.PERF_TEST_RESULT_CONNSTR }}"
-          TEST_RESULT_CONNSTR: "${{ secrets.REGRESS_TEST_RESULT_CONNSTR }}"
+          TEST_RESULT_CONNSTR: "${{ secrets.REGRESS_TEST_RESULT_CONNSTR_NEW }}"
      # XXX: no coverage data handling here, since benchmarks are run on release builds,
      # while coverage is currently collected for the debug ones

  create-test-report:
+    needs: [ check-permissions, regress-tests, coverage-report, benchmarks ]
+    if: ${{ !cancelled() && contains(fromJSON('["skipped", "success"]'), needs.check-permissions.result) }}
+
    runs-on: [ self-hosted, gen3, small ]
    container:
      image: 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/rust:pinned
      options: --init
-    needs: [ regress-tests, benchmarks ]
-    if: ${{ !cancelled() }}

    steps:
      - uses: actions/checkout@v3
@@ -449,42 +505,40 @@ jobs:
              reportJsonUrl: "${{ steps.create-allure-report.outputs.report-json-url }}",
            }

+            const coverage = {
+              coverageUrl: "${{ needs.coverage-report.outputs.coverage-html }}",
+              summaryJsonUrl: "${{ needs.coverage-report.outputs.coverage-json }}",
+            }
+
            const script = require("./scripts/comment-test-report.js")
            await script({
              github,
              context,
              fetch,
              report,
+              coverage,
            })

  coverage-report:
+    needs: [ check-permissions, regress-tests ]
+
    runs-on: [ self-hosted, gen3, small ]
    container:
      image: 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/rust:pinned
      options: --init
-    needs: [ regress-tests ]
    strategy:
      fail-fast: false
      matrix:
        build_type: [ debug ]
+    outputs:
+        coverage-html: ${{ steps.upload-coverage-report-new.outputs.report-url }}
+        coverage-json: ${{ steps.upload-coverage-report-new.outputs.summary-json }}
    steps:
      - name: Checkout
        uses: actions/checkout@v3
        with:
          submodules: true
-          fetch-depth: 1
-
-#      Disabled for now
-#      - name: Restore cargo deps cache
-#        id: cache_cargo
-#        uses: actions/cache@v3
-#        with:
-#          path: |
-#            ~/.cargo/registry/
-#            !~/.cargo/registry/src
-#            ~/.cargo/git/
-#            target/
-#          key: v1-${{ runner.os }}-${{ matrix.build_type }}-cargo-${{ hashFiles('rust-toolchain.toml') }}-${{ hashFiles('Cargo.lock') }}
+          fetch-depth: 0

      - name: Get Neon artifact
        uses: ./.github/actions/download
@@ -527,13 +581,45 @@ jobs:
          REPORT_URL=https://${BUCKET}.s3.amazonaws.com/code-coverage/${COMMIT_SHA}/index.html
          echo "report-url=${REPORT_URL}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT

+      - name: Build coverage report NEW
+        id: upload-coverage-report-new
+        env:
+          BUCKET: neon-github-public-dev
+          COMMIT_SHA: ${{ github.event.pull_request.head.sha || github.sha }}
+        run: |
+          BASELINE="$(git merge-base HEAD origin/main)"
+          CURRENT="${COMMIT_SHA}"
+
+          cp /tmp/coverage/report/lcov.info ./${CURRENT}.info
+
+          GENHTML_ARGS="--ignore-errors path,unmapped,empty --synthesize-missing --demangle-cpp rustfilt --output-directory lcov-html ${CURRENT}.info"
+
+          # Use differential coverage if the baseline coverage exists.
+          # It can be missing if the coverage repoer wasn't uploaded yet or tests has failed on BASELINE commit.
+          if aws s3 cp --only-show-errors s3://${BUCKET}/code-coverage/${BASELINE}/lcov.info ./${BASELINE}.info; then
+            git diff ${BASELINE} ${CURRENT} -- '*.rs' > baseline-current.diff
+
+            GENHTML_ARGS="--baseline-file ${BASELINE}.info --diff-file baseline-current.diff ${GENHTML_ARGS}"
+          fi
+
+          genhtml ${GENHTML_ARGS}
+
+          aws s3 cp --only-show-errors --recursive ./lcov-html/ s3://${BUCKET}/code-coverage/${COMMIT_SHA}/lcov
+
+          REPORT_URL=https://${BUCKET}.s3.amazonaws.com/code-coverage/${COMMIT_SHA}/lcov/index.html
+          echo "report-url=${REPORT_URL}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT
+
+          REPORT_URL=https://${BUCKET}.s3.amazonaws.com/code-coverage/${COMMIT_SHA}/lcov/summary.json
+          echo "summary-json=${REPORT_URL}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT
+
      - uses: actions/github-script@v6
        env:
          REPORT_URL: ${{ steps.upload-coverage-report.outputs.report-url }}
+          REPORT_URL_NEW: ${{ steps.upload-coverage-report-new.outputs.report-url }}
          COMMIT_SHA: ${{ github.event.pull_request.head.sha || github.sha }}
        with:
          script: |
-            const { REPORT_URL, COMMIT_SHA } = process.env
+            const { REPORT_URL, REPORT_URL_NEW, COMMIT_SHA } = process.env

            await github.rest.repos.createCommitStatus({
              owner: context.repo.owner,
@@ -544,12 +630,21 @@ jobs:
              context: 'Code coverage report',
            })

+            await github.rest.repos.createCommitStatus({
+              owner: context.repo.owner,
+              repo: context.repo.repo,
+              sha: `${COMMIT_SHA}`,
+              state: 'success',
+              target_url: `${REPORT_URL_NEW}`,
+              context: 'Code coverage report NEW',
+            })
+
  trigger-e2e-tests:
+    needs: [ check-permissions, promote-images, tag ]
    runs-on: [ self-hosted, gen3, small ]
    container:
      image: 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/base:pinned
      options: --init
-    needs: [ promote-images, tag ]
    steps:
      - name: Set PR's status to pending and request a remote CI test
        run: |
@@ -590,8 +685,8 @@ jobs:
            }"

  neon-image:
+    needs: [ check-permissions, tag ]
    runs-on: [ self-hosted, gen3, large ]
-    needs: [ tag ]
    container: gcr.io/kaniko-project/executor:v1.9.2-debug
    defaults:
      run:
@@ -628,6 +723,7 @@ jobs:
                           --cache-repo 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/cache
                           --context .
                           --build-arg GIT_VERSION=${{ github.event.pull_request.head.sha || github.sha }}
+                           --build-arg BUILD_TAG=${{ needs.tag.outputs.build-tag }}
                           --build-arg REPOSITORY=369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com
                           --destination 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/neon:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}}
                           --destination neondatabase/neon:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}}
@@ -638,7 +734,7 @@ jobs:

  compute-tools-image:
    runs-on: [ self-hosted, gen3, large ]
-    needs: [ tag ]
+    needs: [ check-permissions, tag ]
    container: gcr.io/kaniko-project/executor:v1.9.2-debug
    defaults:
      run:
@@ -683,17 +779,17 @@ jobs:
        run: rm -rf ~/.ecr

  compute-node-image:
+    needs: [ check-permissions, tag ]
    runs-on: [ self-hosted, gen3, large ]
    container:
      image: gcr.io/kaniko-project/executor:v1.9.2-debug
      # Workaround for "Resolving download.osgeo.org (download.osgeo.org)... failed: Temporary failure in name resolution.""
      # Should be prevented by https://github.com/neondatabase/neon/issues/4281
      options: --add-host=download.osgeo.org:140.211.15.30
-    needs: [ tag ]
    strategy:
      fail-fast: false
      matrix:
-        version: [ v14, v15 ]
+        version: [ v14, v15, v16 ]
    defaults:
      run:
        shell: sh -eu {0}
@@ -737,50 +833,22 @@ jobs:
                           --destination neondatabase/compute-node-${{ matrix.version }}:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}}
                           --cleanup

-      # Due to a kaniko bug, we can't use cache for extensions image, thus it takes about the same amount of time as compute-node image to build (~10 min)
-      # During the transition period we need to have extensions in both places (in S3 and in compute-node image),
-      # so we won't build extension twice, but extract them from compute-node.
-      #
-      # For now we use extensions image only for new custom extensitons
-      - name: Kaniko build extensions only
-        run: |
-          # Kaniko is suposed to clean up after itself if --cleanup flag is set, but it doesn't.
-          # Despite some fixes were made in https://github.com/GoogleContainerTools/kaniko/pull/2504 (in kaniko v1.11.0),
-          # it still fails with error:
-          #   error building image: could not save file: copying file: symlink postgres /kaniko/1/usr/local/pgsql/bin/postmaster: file exists
-          #
-          # Ref https://github.com/GoogleContainerTools/kaniko/issues/1406
-          find /kaniko -maxdepth 1 -mindepth 1 -type d -regex "/kaniko/[0-9]*" -exec rm -rv {} \;
-
-          /kaniko/executor --reproducible --snapshot-mode=redo --skip-unused-stages --cache=true \
-                           --cache-repo 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/cache \
-                           --context . \
-                           --build-arg GIT_VERSION=${{ github.event.pull_request.head.sha || github.sha }} \
-                           --build-arg PG_VERSION=${{ matrix.version }} \
-                           --build-arg BUILD_TAG=${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} \
-                           --build-arg REPOSITORY=369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com \
-                           --dockerfile Dockerfile.compute-node \
-                           --destination 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/extensions-${{ matrix.version }}:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} \
-                           --destination neondatabase/extensions-${{ matrix.version }}:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} \
-                           --cleanup \
-                           --target postgres-extensions
-
      # Cleanup script fails otherwise - rm: cannot remove '/nvme/actions-runner/_work/_temp/_github_home/.ecr': Permission denied
      - name: Cleanup ECR folder
        run: rm -rf ~/.ecr

  vm-compute-node-image:
+    needs: [ check-permissions, tag, compute-node-image ]
    runs-on: [ self-hosted, gen3, large ]
-    needs: [ tag, compute-node-image ]
    strategy:
      fail-fast: false
      matrix:
-        version: [ v14, v15 ]
+        version: [ v14, v15, v16 ]
    defaults:
      run:
        shell: sh -eu {0}
    env:
-      VM_BUILDER_VERSION: v0.16.3
+      VM_BUILDER_VERSION: v0.18.5

    steps:
      - name: Checkout
@@ -803,7 +871,7 @@ jobs:
        run: |
          ./vm-builder \
            -enable-file-cache \
-            -enable-monitor \
+            -cgroup-uid=postgres \
            -src=369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/compute-node-${{ matrix.version }}:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} \
            -dst=369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/vm-compute-node-${{ matrix.version }}:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}}

@@ -812,7 +880,7 @@ jobs:
          docker push 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/vm-compute-node-${{ matrix.version }}:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}}

  test-images:
-    needs: [ tag, neon-image, compute-node-image, compute-tools-image ]
+    needs: [ check-permissions, tag, neon-image, compute-node-image, compute-tools-image ]
    runs-on: [ self-hosted, gen3, small ]

    steps:
@@ -855,8 +923,8 @@ jobs:
          docker compose -f ./docker-compose/docker-compose.yml down

  promote-images:
+    needs: [ check-permissions, tag, test-images, vm-compute-node-image ]
    runs-on: [ self-hosted, gen3, small ]
-    needs: [ tag, test-images, vm-compute-node-image ]
    container: golang:1.19-bullseye
    # Don't add if-condition here.
    # The job should always be run because we have dependant other jobs that shouldn't be skipped
@@ -876,6 +944,7 @@ jobs:
        run: |
          crane pull 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/vm-compute-node-v14:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} vm-compute-node-v14
          crane pull 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/vm-compute-node-v15:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} vm-compute-node-v15
+          crane pull 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/vm-compute-node-v16:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} vm-compute-node-v16

      - name: Add latest tag to images
        if: |
@@ -886,10 +955,10 @@ jobs:
          crane tag 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/compute-tools:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} latest
          crane tag 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/compute-node-v14:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} latest
          crane tag 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/vm-compute-node-v14:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} latest
-          crane tag 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/extensions-v14:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} latest
          crane tag 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/compute-node-v15:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} latest
          crane tag 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/vm-compute-node-v15:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} latest
-          crane tag 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/extensions-v15:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} latest
+          crane tag 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/compute-node-v16:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} latest
+          crane tag 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/vm-compute-node-v16:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} latest

      - name: Push images to production ECR
        if: |
@@ -900,10 +969,10 @@ jobs:
          crane copy 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/compute-tools:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} 093970136003.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/compute-tools:latest
          crane copy 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/compute-node-v14:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} 093970136003.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/compute-node-v14:latest
          crane copy 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/vm-compute-node-v14:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} 093970136003.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/vm-compute-node-v14:latest
-          crane copy 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/extensions-v14:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} 093970136003.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/extensions-v14:latest
          crane copy 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/compute-node-v15:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} 093970136003.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/compute-node-v15:latest
          crane copy 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/vm-compute-node-v15:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} 093970136003.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/vm-compute-node-v15:latest
-          crane copy 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/extensions-v15:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} 093970136003.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/extensions-v15:latest
+          crane copy 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/compute-node-v16:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} 093970136003.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/compute-node-v16:latest
+          crane copy 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/vm-compute-node-v16:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} 093970136003.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/vm-compute-node-v16:latest

      - name: Configure Docker Hub login
        run: |
@@ -915,6 +984,7 @@ jobs:
        run: |
          crane push vm-compute-node-v14 neondatabase/vm-compute-node-v14:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}}
          crane push vm-compute-node-v15 neondatabase/vm-compute-node-v15:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}}
+          crane push vm-compute-node-v16 neondatabase/vm-compute-node-v16:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}}

      - name: Push latest tags to Docker Hub
        if: |
@@ -925,66 +995,94 @@ jobs:
          crane tag neondatabase/compute-tools:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} latest
          crane tag neondatabase/compute-node-v14:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} latest
          crane tag neondatabase/vm-compute-node-v14:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} latest
-          crane tag neondatabase/extensions-v14:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} latest
          crane tag neondatabase/compute-node-v15:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} latest
          crane tag neondatabase/vm-compute-node-v15:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} latest
-          crane tag neondatabase/extensions-v15:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} latest
+          crane tag neondatabase/compute-node-v16:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} latest
+          crane tag neondatabase/vm-compute-node-v16:${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} latest

      - name: Cleanup ECR folder
        run: rm -rf ~/.ecr

-  upload-postgres-extensions-to-s3:
-    if: |
-      (github.ref_name == 'main' || github.ref_name == 'release') &&
-       github.event_name != 'workflow_dispatch'
-    runs-on: ${{ github.ref_name == 'release' && fromJSON('["self-hosted", "prod", "x64"]') || fromJSON('["self-hosted", "gen3", "small"]') }}
-    needs: [ tag, promote-images ]
-    strategy:
-      fail-fast: false
-      matrix:
-        version: [ v14, v15 ]
-
-    env:
-      EXTENSIONS_IMAGE: ${{ github.ref_name == 'release' && '093970136003' || '369495373322'}}.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/extensions-${{ matrix.version }}:${{ needs.tag.outputs.build-tag }}
-      AWS_ACCESS_KEY_ID: ${{ github.ref_name == 'release' && secrets.AWS_ACCESS_KEY_PROD || secrets.AWS_ACCESS_KEY_DEV }}
-      AWS_SECRET_ACCESS_KEY: ${{ github.ref_name == 'release' && secrets.AWS_SECRET_KEY_PROD || secrets.AWS_SECRET_KEY_DEV }}
-      S3_BUCKETS: ${{ github.ref_name == 'release' && vars.S3_EXTENSIONS_BUCKETS_PROD || vars.S3_EXTENSIONS_BUCKETS_DEV }}
-
+  trigger-custom-extensions-build-and-wait:
+    needs: [ check-permissions, tag ]
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
    steps:
-      - name: Pull postgres-extensions image
+      - name: Set PR's status to pending and request a remote CI test
        run: |
-          docker pull ${EXTENSIONS_IMAGE}
+          COMMIT_SHA=${{ github.event.pull_request.head.sha || github.sha }}
+          REMOTE_REPO="${{ github.repository_owner }}/build-custom-extensions"

-      - name: Create postgres-extensions container
-        id: create-container
+          curl -f -X POST \
+          https://api.github.com/repos/${{ github.repository }}/statuses/$COMMIT_SHA \
+          -H "Accept: application/vnd.github.v3+json" \
+          --user "${{ secrets.CI_ACCESS_TOKEN }}" \
+          --data \
+            "{
+              \"state\": \"pending\",
+              \"context\": \"build-and-upload-extensions\",
+              \"description\": \"[$REMOTE_REPO] Remote CI job is about to start\"
+            }"
+
+          curl -f -X POST \
+          https://api.github.com/repos/$REMOTE_REPO/actions/workflows/build_and_upload_extensions.yml/dispatches \
+          -H "Accept: application/vnd.github.v3+json" \
+          --user "${{ secrets.CI_ACCESS_TOKEN }}" \
+          --data \
+            "{
+              \"ref\": \"main\",
+              \"inputs\": {
+                \"ci_job_name\": \"build-and-upload-extensions\",
+                \"commit_hash\": \"$COMMIT_SHA\",
+                \"remote_repo\": \"${{ github.repository }}\",
+                \"compute_image_tag\": \"${{ needs.tag.outputs.build-tag }}\",
+                \"remote_branch_name\": \"${{ github.ref_name }}\"
+              }
+            }"
+
+      - name: Wait for extension build to finish
+        env:
+          GH_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.CI_ACCESS_TOKEN }}
        run: |
-          EID=$(docker create ${EXTENSIONS_IMAGE} true)
-          echo "EID=${EID}" >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT
+          TIMEOUT=1800 # 30 minutes, usually it takes ~2-3 minutes, but if runners are busy, it might take longer
+          INTERVAL=15 # try each N seconds

-      - name: Extract postgres-extensions from container
-        run: |
-          rm -rf ./extensions-to-upload # Just in case
-          mkdir -p extensions-to-upload
+          last_status="" # a variable to carry the last status of the "build-and-upload-extensions" context

-          docker cp ${{ steps.create-container.outputs.EID }}:/extensions/ ./extensions-to-upload/
-          docker cp ${{ steps.create-container.outputs.EID }}:/ext_index.json ./extensions-to-upload/
+          for ((i=0; i <= TIMEOUT; i+=INTERVAL)); do
+            sleep $INTERVAL

-      - name: Upload postgres-extensions to S3
-        run: |
-          for BUCKET in $(echo ${S3_BUCKETS:-[]} | jq --raw-output '.[]'); do
-            aws s3 cp --recursive --only-show-errors ./extensions-to-upload s3://${BUCKET}/${{ needs.tag.outputs.build-tag }}/${{ matrix.version }}
+            # Get statuses for the latest commit in the PR / branch
+            gh api \
+              -H "Accept: application/vnd.github+json" \
+              -H "X-GitHub-Api-Version: 2022-11-28" \
+              "/repos/${{ github.repository }}/statuses/${{ github.event.pull_request.head.sha || github.sha }}" > statuses.json
+
+            # Get the latest status for the "build-and-upload-extensions" context
+            last_status=$(jq --raw-output '[.[] | select(.context == "build-and-upload-extensions")] | sort_by(.created_at)[-1].state' statuses.json)
+            if [ "${last_status}" = "pending" ]; then
+              # Extension build is still in progress.
+              continue
+            elif [ "${last_status}" = "success" ]; then
+              # Extension build is successful.
+              exit 0
+            else
+              # Status is neither "pending" nor "success", exit the loop and fail the job.
+              break
+            fi
          done

-      - name: Cleanup
-        if: ${{ always() && steps.create-container.outputs.EID }}
-        run: |
-          docker rm ${{ steps.create-container.outputs.EID }} || true
+          # Extension build failed, print `statuses.json` for debugging and fail the job.
+          jq '.' statuses.json
+
+          echo >&2 "Status of extension build is '${last_status}' != 'success'"
+          exit 1

  deploy:
+    needs: [ check-permissions, promote-images, tag, regress-tests, trigger-custom-extensions-build-and-wait ]
+    if: ( github.ref_name == 'main' || github.ref_name == 'release' ) && github.event_name != 'workflow_dispatch'
+
    runs-on: [ self-hosted, gen3, small ]
    container: 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/ansible:latest
-    needs: [ upload-postgres-extensions-to-s3, promote-images, tag, regress-tests ]
-    if: ( github.ref_name == 'main' || github.ref_name == 'release' ) && github.event_name != 'workflow_dispatch'
    steps:
      - name: Fix git ownership
        run: |
@@ -1007,7 +1105,10 @@ jobs:
          GH_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.CI_ACCESS_TOKEN }}
        run: |
          if [[ "$GITHUB_REF_NAME" == "main" ]]; then
-            gh workflow --repo neondatabase/aws run deploy-dev.yml --ref main -f branch=main -f dockerTag=${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}}
+            gh workflow --repo neondatabase/aws run deploy-dev.yml --ref main -f branch=main -f dockerTag=${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} -f deployPreprodRegion=false
+
+            # TODO: move deployPreprodRegion to release (`"$GITHUB_REF_NAME" == "release"` block), once Staging support different compute tag prefixes for different regions
+            gh workflow --repo neondatabase/aws run deploy-dev.yml --ref main -f branch=main -f dockerTag=${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} -f deployPreprodRegion=true
          elif [[ "$GITHUB_REF_NAME" == "release" ]]; then
            gh workflow --repo neondatabase/aws run deploy-prod.yml --ref main -f branch=main -f dockerTag=${{needs.tag.outputs.build-tag}} -f disclamerAcknowledged=true
          else
@@ -1022,20 +1123,35 @@ jobs:
          # Retry script for 5XX server errors: https://github.com/actions/github-script#retries
          retries: 5
          script: |
-            github.rest.git.createRef({
+            await github.rest.git.createRef({
              owner: context.repo.owner,
              repo: context.repo.repo,
              ref: "refs/tags/${{ needs.tag.outputs.build-tag }}",
              sha: context.sha,
            })

+      - name: Create GitHub release
+        if: github.ref_name == 'release'
+        uses: actions/github-script@v6
+        with:
+          # Retry script for 5XX server errors: https://github.com/actions/github-script#retries
+          retries: 5
+          script: |
+            await github.rest.repos.createRelease({
+              owner: context.repo.owner,
+              repo: context.repo.repo,
+              tag_name: "${{ needs.tag.outputs.build-tag }}",
+              generate_release_notes: true,
+            })
+
  promote-compatibility-data:
+    needs: [ check-permissions, promote-images, tag, regress-tests ]
+    if: github.ref_name == 'release'
+
    runs-on: [ self-hosted, gen3, small ]
    container:
      image: 369495373322.dkr.ecr.eu-central-1.amazonaws.com/base:pinned
      options: --init
-    needs: [ promote-images, tag, regress-tests ]
-    if: github.ref_name == 'release' && github.event_name != 'workflow_dispatch'
    steps:
      - name: Promote compatibility snapshot for the release
        env:
@@ -1043,7 +1159,7 @@ jobs:
          PREFIX: artifacts/latest
        run: |
          # Update compatibility snapshot for the release
-          for pg_version in v14 v15; do
+          for pg_version in v14 v15 v16; do
            for build_type in debug release; do
              OLD_FILENAME=compatibility-snapshot-${build_type}-pg${pg_version}-${GITHUB_RUN_ID}.tar.zst
              NEW_FILENAME=compatibility-snapshot-${build_type}-pg${pg_version}.tar.zst
--- a/.github/workflows/neon_extra_builds.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/neon_extra_builds.yml
@@ -4,7 +4,6 @@ on:
  push:
    branches:
      - main
-      - ci-run/pr-*
  pull_request:

 defaults:
@@ -33,13 +32,13 @@ jobs:

    steps:
      - name: Checkout
-        uses: actions/checkout@v3
+        uses: actions/checkout@v4
        with:
          submodules: true
          fetch-depth: 1

      - name: Install macOS postgres dependencies
-        run: brew install flex bison openssl protobuf
+        run: brew install flex bison openssl protobuf icu4c pkg-config

      - name: Set pg 14 revision for caching
        id: pg_v14_rev
@@ -49,6 +48,10 @@ jobs:
        id: pg_v15_rev
        run: echo pg_rev=$(git rev-parse HEAD:vendor/postgres-v15) >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT

+      - name: Set pg 16 revision for caching
+        id: pg_v16_rev
+        run: echo pg_rev=$(git rev-parse HEAD:vendor/postgres-v16) >> $GITHUB_OUTPUT
+
      - name: Cache postgres v14 build
        id: cache_pg_14
        uses: actions/cache@v3
@@ -63,6 +66,13 @@ jobs:
          path: pg_install/v15
          key: v1-${{ runner.os }}-${{ env.BUILD_TYPE }}-pg-${{ steps.pg_v15_rev.outputs.pg_rev }}-${{ hashFiles('Makefile') }}

+      - name: Cache postgres v16 build
+        id: cache_pg_16
+        uses: actions/cache@v3
+        with:
+          path: pg_install/v16
+          key: v1-${{ runner.os }}-${{ env.BUILD_TYPE }}-pg-${{ steps.pg_v16_rev.outputs.pg_rev }}-${{ hashFiles('Makefile') }}
+
      - name: Set extra env for macOS
        run: |
          echo 'LDFLAGS=-L/usr/local/opt/openssl@3/lib' >> $GITHUB_ENV
@@ -80,14 +90,21 @@ jobs:

      - name: Build postgres v14
        if: steps.cache_pg_14.outputs.cache-hit != 'true'
-        run: make postgres-v14 -j$(nproc)
+        run: make postgres-v14 -j$(sysctl -n hw.ncpu)

      - name: Build postgres v15
        if: steps.cache_pg_15.outputs.cache-hit != 'true'
-        run: make postgres-v15 -j$(nproc)
+        run: make postgres-v15 -j$(sysctl -n hw.ncpu)
+
+      - name: Build postgres v16
+        if: steps.cache_pg_16.outputs.cache-hit != 'true'
+        run: make postgres-v16 -j$(sysctl -n hw.ncpu)

      - name: Build neon extensions
-        run: make neon-pg-ext -j$(nproc)
+        run: make neon-pg-ext -j$(sysctl -n hw.ncpu)
+
+      - name: Build walproposer-lib
+        run: make walproposer-lib -j$(sysctl -n hw.ncpu)

      - name: Run cargo build
        run: cargo build --all --release
@@ -112,7 +129,7 @@ jobs:

    steps:
      - name: Checkout
-        uses: actions/checkout@v3
+        uses: actions/checkout@v4
        with:
          submodules: true
          fetch-depth: 1
@@ -121,6 +138,9 @@ jobs:
      - name: Get postgres headers
        run: make postgres-headers -j$(nproc)

+      - name: Build walproposer-lib
+        run: make walproposer-lib -j$(nproc)
+
      - name: Produce the build stats
        run: cargo build --all --release --timings

--- a/.github/workflows/release-notify.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/release-notify.yml
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+name: Notify Slack channel about upcoming release
+
+concurrency:
+  group: ${{ github.workflow }}-${{ github.event.number }}
+  cancel-in-progress: true
+
+on:
+  pull_request:
+    branches:
+      - release
+    types:
+      # Default types that triggers a workflow:
+      # - https://docs.github.com/en/actions/using-workflows/events-that-trigger-workflows#pull_request
+      - opened
+      - synchronize
+      - reopened
+      # Additional types that we want to handle:
+      - closed
+
+jobs:
+  notify:
+    runs-on: [ ubuntu-latest ]
+
+    steps:
+      - uses: neondatabase/dev-actions/release-pr-notify@main
+        with:
+          slack-token: ${{ secrets.SLACK_BOT_TOKEN }}
+          slack-channel-id: ${{ vars.SLACK_UPCOMING_RELEASE_CHANNEL_ID || 'C05QQ9J1BRC' }} # if not set, then `#test-release-notifications`
+          github-token: ${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}
--- a/.github/workflows/release.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/release.yml
@@ -2,16 +2,19 @@ name: Create Release Branch

 on:
  schedule:
-    - cron: '0 10 * * 2'
+    - cron: '0 7 * * 5'
  workflow_dispatch:

 jobs:
  create_release_branch:
-    runs-on: [ubuntu-latest]
+    runs-on: [ ubuntu-latest ]
+
+    permissions:
+      contents: write # for `git push`

    steps:
    - name: Check out code
-      uses: actions/checkout@v3
+      uses: actions/checkout@v4
      with:
        ref: main

@@ -26,9 +29,16 @@ jobs:
      run: git push origin releases/${{ steps.date.outputs.date }}

    - name: Create pull request into release
-      uses: thomaseizinger/create-pull-request@e3972219c86a56550fb70708d96800d8e24ba862 # 1.3.0
-      with:
-        GITHUB_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}
-        head: releases/${{ steps.date.outputs.date }}
-        base: release
-        title: Release ${{ steps.date.outputs.date }}
+      env:
+        GH_TOKEN: ${{ secrets.CI_ACCESS_TOKEN }}
+      run: |
+        cat << EOF > body.md
+          ## Release ${{ steps.date.outputs.date }}
+
+          **Please merge this PR using 'Create a merge commit'!**
+        EOF
+
+        gh pr create --title "Release ${{ steps.date.outputs.date }}" \
+                     --body-file "body.md" \
+                     --head "releases/${{ steps.date.outputs.date }}" \
+                     --base "release"
--- a/.gitmodules
+++ b/.gitmodules
@@ -6,3 +6,7 @@
 	path = vendor/postgres-v15
 	url = https://github.com/neondatabase/postgres.git
 	branch = REL_15_STABLE_neon
+[submodule "vendor/postgres-v16"]
+	path = vendor/postgres-v16
+	url = https://github.com/neondatabase/postgres.git
+	branch = REL_16_STABLE_neon
--- a/13
+++ b/13
@@ -1,11 +1,12 @@
-/compute_tools/ @neondatabase/control-plane
+/compute_tools/ @neondatabase/control-plane @neondatabase/compute
 /control_plane/ @neondatabase/compute @neondatabase/storage
 /libs/pageserver_api/ @neondatabase/compute @neondatabase/storage
-/libs/postgres_ffi/ @neondatabase/compute 
-/libs/remote_storage/ @neondatabase/storage 
-/libs/safekeeper_api/ @neondatabase/safekeepers  
-/pageserver/ @neondatabase/compute @neondatabase/storage 
+/libs/postgres_ffi/ @neondatabase/compute
+/libs/remote_storage/ @neondatabase/storage
+/libs/safekeeper_api/ @neondatabase/safekeepers
+/libs/vm_monitor/ @neondatabase/autoscaling @neondatabase/compute
+/pageserver/ @neondatabase/storage
 /pgxn/ @neondatabase/compute
-/proxy/ @neondatabase/control-plane 
+/proxy/ @neondatabase/proxy
 /safekeeper/ @neondatabase/safekeepers
 /vendor/ @neondatabase/compute
--- a/CONTRIBUTING.md
+++ b/CONTRIBUTING.md
@@ -27,3 +27,28 @@ your patch's fault. Help to fix the root cause if something else has
 broken the CI, before pushing.

 *Happy Hacking!*
+
+# How to run a CI pipeline on Pull Requests from external contributors
+_An instruction for maintainers_
+
+## TL;DR:
+- Review the PR
+- If and only if it looks **safe** (i.e. it doesn't contain any malicious code which could expose secrets or harm the CI), then:
+    - Press the "Approve and run" button in GitHub UI
+    - Add the `approved-for-ci-run` label to the PR
+
+Repeat all steps after any change to the PR.
+- When the changes are ready to get merged — merge the original PR (not the internal one)
+
+## Longer version:
+
+GitHub Actions triggered by the `pull_request` event don't share repository secrets with the forks (for security reasons).
+So, passing the CI pipeline on Pull Requests from external contributors is impossible.
+
+We're using the following approach to make it work:
+- After the review, assign the `approved-for-ci-run` label to the PR if changes look safe
+- A GitHub Action will create an internal branch and a new PR with the same changes (for example, for a PR `#1234`, it'll be a branch `ci-run/pr-1234`)
+- Because the PR is created from the internal branch, it is able to access repository secrets (that's why it's crucial to make sure that the PR doesn't contain any malicious code that could expose our secrets or intentionally harm the CI)
+- The label gets removed automatically, so to run CI again with new changes, the label should be added again (after the review)
+
+For details see [`approved-for-ci-run.yml`](.github/workflows/approved-for-ci-run.yml)
--- a/Cargo.lock
+++ b/Cargo.lock
--- a/Cargo.toml
+++ b/Cargo.toml
@@ -1,4 +1,5 @@
 [workspace]
+resolver = "2"
 members = [
    "compute_tools",
    "control_plane",
@@ -7,6 +8,7 @@ members = [
    "proxy",
    "safekeeper",
    "storage_broker",
+    "s3_scrubber",
    "workspace_hack",
    "trace",
    "libs/compute_api",
@@ -23,6 +25,8 @@ members = [
    "libs/remote_storage",
    "libs/tracing-utils",
    "libs/postgres_ffi/wal_craft",
+    "libs/vm_monitor",
+    "libs/walproposer",
 ]

 [workspace.package]
@@ -32,21 +36,30 @@ license = "Apache-2.0"
 ## All dependency versions, used in the project
 [workspace.dependencies]
 anyhow = { version = "1.0", features = ["backtrace"] }
+arc-swap = "1.6"
 async-compression = { version = "0.4.0", features = ["tokio", "gzip"] }
+azure_core = "0.16"
+azure_identity = "0.16"
+azure_storage = "0.16"
+azure_storage_blobs = "0.16"
 flate2 = "1.0.26"
 async-stream = "0.3"
 async-trait = "0.1"
-aws-config = { version = "0.55", default-features = false, features=["rustls"] }
-aws-sdk-s3 = "0.27"
-aws-smithy-http = "0.55"
-aws-credential-types = "0.55"
-aws-types = "0.55"
+aws-config = { version = "0.56", default-features = false, features=["rustls"] }
+aws-sdk-s3 = "0.29"
+aws-smithy-http = "0.56"
+aws-smithy-async = { version = "0.56", default-features = false, features=["rt-tokio"] }
+aws-credential-types = "0.56"
+aws-types = "0.56"
+axum = { version = "0.6.20", features = ["ws"] }
 base64 = "0.13.0"
 bincode = "1.3"
 bindgen = "0.65"
 bstr = "1.0"
 byteorder = "1.4"
 bytes = "1.0"
+camino = "1.1.6"
+cfg-if = "1.0.0"
 chrono = { version = "0.4", default-features = false, features = ["clock"] }
 clap = { version = "4.0", features = ["derive"] }
 close_fds = "0.3.2"
@@ -54,7 +67,7 @@ comfy-table = "6.1"
 const_format = "0.2"
 crc32c = "0.6"
 crossbeam-utils = "0.8.5"
-dashmap = "5.5.0"
+dashmap = { version = "5.5.0", features = ["raw-api"] }
 either = "1.8"
 enum-map = "2.4.2"
 enumset = "1.0.12"
@@ -70,10 +83,12 @@ hex = "0.4"
 hex-literal = "0.4"
 hmac = "0.12.1"
 hostname = "0.3.1"
+http-types = "2"
 humantime = "2.1"
 humantime-serde = "1.1.1"
 hyper = "0.14"
-hyper-tungstenite = "0.9"
+hyper-tungstenite = "0.11"
+inotify = "0.10.2"
 itertools = "0.10"
 jsonwebtoken = "8"
 libc = "0.2"
@@ -101,16 +116,20 @@ reqwest-middleware = "0.2.0"
 reqwest-retry = "0.2.2"
 routerify = "3"
 rpds = "0.13"
-rustls = "0.20"
+rustc-hash = "1.1.0"
+rustls = "0.21"
 rustls-pemfile = "1"
 rustls-split = "0.3"
 scopeguard = "1.1"
-sentry = { version = "0.30", default-features = false, features = ["backtrace", "contexts", "panic", "rustls", "reqwest" ] }
+sysinfo = "0.29.2"
+sentry = { version = "0.31", default-features = false, features = ["backtrace", "contexts", "panic", "rustls", "reqwest" ] }
 serde = { version = "1.0", features = ["derive"] }
 serde_json = "1"
 serde_with = "2.0"
+serde_assert = "0.5.0"
 sha2 = "0.10.2"
 signal-hook = "0.3"
+smallvec = "1.11"
 socket2 = "0.5"
 strum = "0.24"
 strum_macros = "0.24"
@@ -119,11 +138,11 @@ sync_wrapper = "0.1.2"
 tar = "0.4"
 test-context = "0.1"
 thiserror = "1.0"
-tls-listener = { version = "0.6", features = ["rustls", "hyper-h1"] }
+tls-listener = { version = "0.7", features = ["rustls", "hyper-h1"] }
 tokio = { version = "1.17", features = ["macros"] }
 tokio-io-timeout = "1.2.0"
-tokio-postgres-rustls = "0.9.0"
-tokio-rustls = "0.23"
+tokio-postgres-rustls = "0.10.0"
+tokio-rustls = "0.24"
 tokio-stream = "0.1"
 tokio-tar = "0.3"
 tokio-util = { version = "0.7", features = ["io"] }
@@ -133,11 +152,11 @@ tonic = {version = "0.9", features = ["tls", "tls-roots"]}
 tracing = "0.1"
 tracing-error = "0.2.0"
 tracing-opentelemetry = "0.19.0"
-tracing-subscriber = { version = "0.3", default_features = false, features = ["smallvec", "fmt", "tracing-log", "std", "env-filter"] }
+tracing-subscriber = { version = "0.3", default_features = false, features = ["smallvec", "fmt", "tracing-log", "std", "env-filter", "json"] }
 url = "2.2"
 uuid = { version = "1.2", features = ["v4", "serde"] }
 walkdir = "2.3.2"
-webpki-roots = "0.23"
+webpki-roots = "0.25"
 x509-parser = "0.15"

 ## TODO replace this with tracing
@@ -145,11 +164,11 @@ env_logger = "0.10"
 log = "0.4"

 ## Libraries from neondatabase/ git forks, ideally with changes to be upstreamed
-postgres = { git = "https://github.com/neondatabase/rust-postgres.git", rev="9011f7110db12b5e15afaf98f8ac834501d50ddc" }
-postgres-native-tls = { git = "https://github.com/neondatabase/rust-postgres.git", rev="9011f7110db12b5e15afaf98f8ac834501d50ddc" }
-postgres-protocol = { git = "https://github.com/neondatabase/rust-postgres.git", rev="9011f7110db12b5e15afaf98f8ac834501d50ddc" }
-postgres-types = { git = "https://github.com/neondatabase/rust-postgres.git", rev="9011f7110db12b5e15afaf98f8ac834501d50ddc" }
-tokio-postgres = { git = "https://github.com/neondatabase/rust-postgres.git", rev="9011f7110db12b5e15afaf98f8ac834501d50ddc" }
+postgres = { git = "https://github.com/neondatabase/rust-postgres.git", rev="ce7260db5998fe27167da42503905a12e7ad9048" }
+postgres-native-tls = { git = "https://github.com/neondatabase/rust-postgres.git", rev="ce7260db5998fe27167da42503905a12e7ad9048" }
+postgres-protocol = { git = "https://github.com/neondatabase/rust-postgres.git", rev="ce7260db5998fe27167da42503905a12e7ad9048" }
+postgres-types = { git = "https://github.com/neondatabase/rust-postgres.git", rev="ce7260db5998fe27167da42503905a12e7ad9048" }
+tokio-postgres = { git = "https://github.com/neondatabase/rust-postgres.git", rev="ce7260db5998fe27167da42503905a12e7ad9048" }

 ## Other git libraries
 heapless = { default-features=false, features=[], git = "https://github.com/japaric/heapless.git", rev = "644653bf3b831c6bb4963be2de24804acf5e5001" } # upstream release pending
@@ -169,22 +188,24 @@ storage_broker = { version = "0.1", path = "./storage_broker/" } # Note: main br
 tenant_size_model = { version = "0.1", path = "./libs/tenant_size_model/" }
 tracing-utils = { version = "0.1", path = "./libs/tracing-utils/" }
 utils = { version = "0.1", path = "./libs/utils/" }
+vm_monitor = { version = "0.1", path = "./libs/vm_monitor/" }
+walproposer = { version = "0.1", path = "./libs/walproposer/" }

 ## Common library dependency
 workspace_hack = { version = "0.1", path = "./workspace_hack/" }

 ## Build dependencies
 criterion = "0.5.1"
-rcgen = "0.10"
-rstest = "0.17"
-tempfile = "3.4"
+rcgen = "0.11"
+rstest = "0.18"
+camino-tempfile = "1.0.2"
 tonic-build = "0.9"

 [patch.crates-io]

 # This is only needed for proxy's tests.
 # TODO: we should probably fork `tokio-postgres-rustls` instead.
-tokio-postgres = { git = "https://github.com/neondatabase/rust-postgres.git", rev="9011f7110db12b5e15afaf98f8ac834501d50ddc" }
+tokio-postgres = { git = "https://github.com/neondatabase/rust-postgres.git", rev="ce7260db5998fe27167da42503905a12e7ad9048" }

 ################# Binary contents sections

--- a/9
+++ b/9
@@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ WORKDIR /home/nonroot

 COPY --chown=nonroot vendor/postgres-v14 vendor/postgres-v14
 COPY --chown=nonroot vendor/postgres-v15 vendor/postgres-v15
+COPY --chown=nonroot vendor/postgres-v16 vendor/postgres-v16
 COPY --chown=nonroot pgxn pgxn
 COPY --chown=nonroot Makefile Makefile
 COPY --chown=nonroot scripts/ninstall.sh scripts/ninstall.sh
@@ -26,6 +27,7 @@ RUN set -e \
 FROM $REPOSITORY/$IMAGE:$TAG AS build
 WORKDIR /home/nonroot
 ARG GIT_VERSION=local
+ARG BUILD_TAG

 # Enable https://github.com/paritytech/cachepot to cache Rust crates' compilation results in Docker builds.
 # Set up cachepot to use an AWS S3 bucket for cache results, to reuse it between `docker build` invocations.
@@ -39,6 +41,7 @@ ARG CACHEPOT_BUCKET=neon-github-dev

 COPY --from=pg-build /home/nonroot/pg_install/v14/include/postgresql/server pg_install/v14/include/postgresql/server
 COPY --from=pg-build /home/nonroot/pg_install/v15/include/postgresql/server pg_install/v15/include/postgresql/server
+COPY --from=pg-build /home/nonroot/pg_install/v16/include/postgresql/server pg_install/v16/include/postgresql/server
 COPY --chown=nonroot . .

 # Show build caching stats to check if it was used in the end.
@@ -65,6 +68,7 @@ RUN set -e \
    && apt install -y \
        libreadline-dev \
        libseccomp-dev \
+        libicu67 \
        openssl \
        ca-certificates \
    && rm -rf /var/lib/apt/lists/* /tmp/* /var/tmp/* \
@@ -75,12 +79,13 @@ COPY --from=build --chown=neon:neon /home/nonroot/target/release/pg_sni_router
 COPY --from=build --chown=neon:neon /home/nonroot/target/release/pageserver          /usr/local/bin
 COPY --from=build --chown=neon:neon /home/nonroot/target/release/pagectl             /usr/local/bin
 COPY --from=build --chown=neon:neon /home/nonroot/target/release/safekeeper          /usr/local/bin
-COPY --from=build --chown=neon:neon /home/nonroot/target/release/storage_broker         /usr/local/bin
+COPY --from=build --chown=neon:neon /home/nonroot/target/release/storage_broker      /usr/local/bin
 COPY --from=build --chown=neon:neon /home/nonroot/target/release/proxy               /usr/local/bin
-COPY --from=build --chown=neon:neon /home/nonroot/target/release/neon_local               /usr/local/bin
+COPY --from=build --chown=neon:neon /home/nonroot/target/release/neon_local          /usr/local/bin

 COPY --from=pg-build /home/nonroot/pg_install/v14 /usr/local/v14/
 COPY --from=pg-build /home/nonroot/pg_install/v15 /usr/local/v15/
+COPY --from=pg-build /home/nonroot/pg_install/v16 /usr/local/v16/
 COPY --from=pg-build /home/nonroot/postgres_install.tar.gz /data/

 # By default, pageserver uses `.neon/` working directory in WORKDIR, so create one and fill it with the dummy config.
--- a/Dockerfile.compute-node
+++ b/Dockerfile.compute-node
@@ -74,8 +74,8 @@ RUN wget https://gitlab.com/Oslandia/SFCGAL/-/archive/v1.3.10/SFCGAL-v1.3.10.tar

 ENV PATH "/usr/local/pgsql/bin:$PATH"

-RUN wget https://download.osgeo.org/postgis/source/postgis-3.3.2.tar.gz -O postgis.tar.gz && \
-    echo "9a2a219da005a1730a39d1959a1c7cec619b1efb009b65be80ffc25bad299068 postgis.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
+RUN wget https://download.osgeo.org/postgis/source/postgis-3.3.3.tar.gz -O postgis.tar.gz && \
+    echo "74eb356e3f85f14233791013360881b6748f78081cc688ff9d6f0f673a762d13 postgis.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
    mkdir postgis-src && cd postgis-src && tar xvzf ../postgis.tar.gz --strip-components=1 -C . && \
    find /usr/local/pgsql -type f | sed 's|^/usr/local/pgsql/||' > /before.txt &&\
    ./autogen.sh && \
@@ -124,8 +124,21 @@ COPY --from=pg-build /usr/local/pgsql/ /usr/local/pgsql/
 RUN apt update && \
    apt install -y ninja-build python3-dev libncurses5 binutils clang

-RUN wget https://github.com/plv8/plv8/archive/refs/tags/v3.1.5.tar.gz -O plv8.tar.gz && \
-    echo "1e108d5df639e4c189e1c5bdfa2432a521c126ca89e7e5a969d46899ca7bf106 plv8.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
+RUN case "${PG_VERSION}" in \
+      "v14" | "v15") \
+        export PLV8_VERSION=3.1.5 \
+        export PLV8_CHECKSUM=1e108d5df639e4c189e1c5bdfa2432a521c126ca89e7e5a969d46899ca7bf106 \
+        ;; \
+      "v16") \
+        export PLV8_VERSION=3.1.8 \
+        export PLV8_CHECKSUM=92b10c7db39afdae97ff748c9ec54713826af222c459084ad002571b79eb3f49 \
+        ;; \
+      *) \
+        echo "Export the valid PG_VERSION variable" && exit 1 \
+        ;; \
+    esac && \
+    wget https://github.com/plv8/plv8/archive/refs/tags/v${PLV8_VERSION}.tar.gz -O plv8.tar.gz && \
+    echo "${PLV8_CHECKSUM} plv8.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
    mkdir plv8-src && cd plv8-src && tar xvzf ../plv8.tar.gz --strip-components=1 -C . && \
    export PATH="/usr/local/pgsql/bin:$PATH" && \
    make DOCKER=1 -j $(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN) install && \
@@ -172,8 +185,8 @@ RUN wget https://github.com/uber/h3/archive/refs/tags/v4.1.0.tar.gz -O h3.tar.gz
    cp -R /h3/usr / && \
    rm -rf build

-RUN wget https://github.com/zachasme/h3-pg/archive/refs/tags/v4.1.2.tar.gz -O h3-pg.tar.gz && \
-    echo "c135aa45999b2ad1326d2537c1cadef96d52660838e4ca371706c08fdea1a956 h3-pg.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
+RUN wget https://github.com/zachasme/h3-pg/archive/refs/tags/v4.1.3.tar.gz -O h3-pg.tar.gz && \
+    echo "5c17f09a820859ffe949f847bebf1be98511fb8f1bd86f94932512c00479e324 h3-pg.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
    mkdir h3-pg-src && cd h3-pg-src && tar xvzf ../h3-pg.tar.gz --strip-components=1 -C . && \
    export PATH="/usr/local/pgsql/bin:$PATH" && \
    make -j $(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN) && \
@@ -211,8 +224,8 @@ RUN wget https://github.com/df7cb/postgresql-unit/archive/refs/tags/7.7.tar.gz -
 FROM build-deps AS vector-pg-build
 COPY --from=pg-build /usr/local/pgsql/ /usr/local/pgsql/

-RUN wget https://github.com/pgvector/pgvector/archive/refs/tags/v0.4.4.tar.gz -O pgvector.tar.gz && \
-    echo "1cb70a63f8928e396474796c22a20be9f7285a8a013009deb8152445b61b72e6 pgvector.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
+RUN wget https://github.com/pgvector/pgvector/archive/refs/tags/v0.5.1.tar.gz -O pgvector.tar.gz && \
+    echo "cc7a8e034a96e30a819911ac79d32f6bc47bdd1aa2de4d7d4904e26b83209dc8 pgvector.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
    mkdir pgvector-src && cd pgvector-src && tar xvzf ../pgvector.tar.gz --strip-components=1 -C . && \
    make -j $(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN) PG_CONFIG=/usr/local/pgsql/bin/pg_config && \
    make -j $(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN) install PG_CONFIG=/usr/local/pgsql/bin/pg_config && \
@@ -243,8 +256,8 @@ RUN wget https://github.com/michelp/pgjwt/archive/9742dab1b2f297ad3811120db7b214
 FROM build-deps AS hypopg-pg-build
 COPY --from=pg-build /usr/local/pgsql/ /usr/local/pgsql/

-RUN wget https://github.com/HypoPG/hypopg/archive/refs/tags/1.3.1.tar.gz -O hypopg.tar.gz && \
-    echo "e7f01ee0259dc1713f318a108f987663d60f3041948c2ada57a94b469565ca8e hypopg.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
+RUN wget https://github.com/HypoPG/hypopg/archive/refs/tags/1.4.0.tar.gz -O hypopg.tar.gz && \
+    echo "0821011743083226fc9b813c1f2ef5897a91901b57b6bea85a78e466187c6819 hypopg.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
    mkdir hypopg-src && cd hypopg-src && tar xvzf ../hypopg.tar.gz --strip-components=1 -C . && \
    make -j $(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN) PG_CONFIG=/usr/local/pgsql/bin/pg_config && \
    make -j $(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN) install PG_CONFIG=/usr/local/pgsql/bin/pg_config && \
@@ -307,8 +320,8 @@ RUN wget https://github.com/theory/pgtap/archive/refs/tags/v1.2.0.tar.gz -O pgta
 FROM build-deps AS ip4r-pg-build
 COPY --from=pg-build /usr/local/pgsql/ /usr/local/pgsql/

-RUN wget https://github.com/RhodiumToad/ip4r/archive/refs/tags/2.4.1.tar.gz -O ip4r.tar.gz && \
-    echo "78b9f0c1ae45c22182768fe892a32d533c82281035e10914111400bf6301c726 ip4r.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
+RUN wget https://github.com/RhodiumToad/ip4r/archive/refs/tags/2.4.2.tar.gz -O ip4r.tar.gz && \
+    echo "0f7b1f159974f49a47842a8ab6751aecca1ed1142b6d5e38d81b064b2ead1b4b ip4r.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
    mkdir ip4r-src && cd ip4r-src && tar xvzf ../ip4r.tar.gz --strip-components=1 -C . && \
    make -j $(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN) PG_CONFIG=/usr/local/pgsql/bin/pg_config && \
    make -j $(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN) install PG_CONFIG=/usr/local/pgsql/bin/pg_config && \
@@ -323,8 +336,8 @@ RUN wget https://github.com/RhodiumToad/ip4r/archive/refs/tags/2.4.1.tar.gz -O i
 FROM build-deps AS prefix-pg-build
 COPY --from=pg-build /usr/local/pgsql/ /usr/local/pgsql/

-RUN wget https://github.com/dimitri/prefix/archive/refs/tags/v1.2.9.tar.gz -O prefix.tar.gz && \
-    echo "38d30a08d0241a8bbb8e1eb8f0152b385051665a8e621c8899e7c5068f8b511e prefix.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
+RUN wget https://github.com/dimitri/prefix/archive/refs/tags/v1.2.10.tar.gz -O prefix.tar.gz && \
+    echo "4342f251432a5f6fb05b8597139d3ccde8dcf87e8ca1498e7ee931ca057a8575 prefix.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
    mkdir prefix-src && cd prefix-src && tar xvzf ../prefix.tar.gz --strip-components=1 -C . && \
    make -j $(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN) PG_CONFIG=/usr/local/pgsql/bin/pg_config && \
    make -j $(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN) install PG_CONFIG=/usr/local/pgsql/bin/pg_config && \
@@ -339,8 +352,8 @@ RUN wget https://github.com/dimitri/prefix/archive/refs/tags/v1.2.9.tar.gz -O pr
 FROM build-deps AS hll-pg-build
 COPY --from=pg-build /usr/local/pgsql/ /usr/local/pgsql/

-RUN wget https://github.com/citusdata/postgresql-hll/archive/refs/tags/v2.17.tar.gz -O hll.tar.gz && \
-    echo "9a18288e884f197196b0d29b9f178ba595b0dfc21fbf7a8699380e77fa04c1e9 hll.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
+RUN wget https://github.com/citusdata/postgresql-hll/archive/refs/tags/v2.18.tar.gz -O hll.tar.gz && \
+    echo "e2f55a6f4c4ab95ee4f1b4a2b73280258c5136b161fe9d059559556079694f0e hll.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
    mkdir hll-src && cd hll-src && tar xvzf ../hll.tar.gz --strip-components=1 -C . && \
    make -j $(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN) PG_CONFIG=/usr/local/pgsql/bin/pg_config && \
    make -j $(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN) install PG_CONFIG=/usr/local/pgsql/bin/pg_config && \
@@ -355,8 +368,8 @@ RUN wget https://github.com/citusdata/postgresql-hll/archive/refs/tags/v2.17.tar
 FROM build-deps AS plpgsql-check-pg-build
 COPY --from=pg-build /usr/local/pgsql/ /usr/local/pgsql/

-RUN wget https://github.com/okbob/plpgsql_check/archive/refs/tags/v2.3.2.tar.gz -O plpgsql_check.tar.gz && \
-    echo "9d81167c4bbeb74eebf7d60147b21961506161addc2aee537f95ad8efeae427b plpgsql_check.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
+RUN wget https://github.com/okbob/plpgsql_check/archive/refs/tags/v2.5.3.tar.gz -O plpgsql_check.tar.gz && \
+    echo "6631ec3e7fb3769eaaf56e3dfedb829aa761abf163d13dba354b4c218508e1c0 plpgsql_check.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
    mkdir plpgsql_check-src && cd plpgsql_check-src && tar xvzf ../plpgsql_check.tar.gz --strip-components=1 -C . && \
    make -j $(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN) PG_CONFIG=/usr/local/pgsql/bin/pg_config USE_PGXS=1 && \
    make -j $(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN) install PG_CONFIG=/usr/local/pgsql/bin/pg_config USE_PGXS=1 && \
@@ -371,12 +384,21 @@ RUN wget https://github.com/okbob/plpgsql_check/archive/refs/tags/v2.3.2.tar.gz
 FROM build-deps AS timescaledb-pg-build
 COPY --from=pg-build /usr/local/pgsql/ /usr/local/pgsql/

+ARG PG_VERSION
 ENV PATH "/usr/local/pgsql/bin:$PATH"

-RUN apt-get update && \
+RUN case "${PG_VERSION}" in \
+      "v14" | "v15") \
+        export TIMESCALEDB_VERSION=2.10.1 \
+        export TIMESCALEDB_CHECKSUM=6fca72a6ed0f6d32d2b3523951ede73dc5f9b0077b38450a029a5f411fdb8c73 \
+        ;; \
+      *) \
+        echo "TimescaleDB not supported on this PostgreSQL version. See https://github.com/timescale/timescaledb/issues/5752" && exit 0;; \
+    esac && \
+    apt-get update && \
    apt-get install -y cmake && \
-    wget https://github.com/timescale/timescaledb/archive/refs/tags/2.10.1.tar.gz -O timescaledb.tar.gz && \
-    echo "6fca72a6ed0f6d32d2b3523951ede73dc5f9b0077b38450a029a5f411fdb8c73 timescaledb.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
+    wget https://github.com/timescale/timescaledb/archive/refs/tags/${TIMESCALEDB_VERSION}.tar.gz -O timescaledb.tar.gz && \
+    echo "${TIMESCALEDB_CHECKSUM} timescaledb.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
    mkdir timescaledb-src && cd timescaledb-src && tar xvzf ../timescaledb.tar.gz --strip-components=1 -C . && \
    ./bootstrap -DSEND_TELEMETRY_DEFAULT:BOOL=OFF -DUSE_TELEMETRY:BOOL=OFF -DAPACHE_ONLY:BOOL=ON -DCMAKE_BUILD_TYPE=Release && \
    cd build && \
@@ -405,6 +427,10 @@ RUN case "${PG_VERSION}" in \
        export PG_HINT_PLAN_VERSION=15_1_5_0 \
        export PG_HINT_PLAN_CHECKSUM=564cbbf4820973ffece63fbf76e3c0af62c4ab23543142c7caaa682bc48918be \
        ;; \
+      "v16") \
+        export PG_HINT_PLAN_VERSION=16_1_6_0 \
+        export PG_HINT_PLAN_CHECKSUM=fc85a9212e7d2819d4ae4ac75817481101833c3cfa9f0fe1f980984e12347d00 \
+        ;; \
      *) \
        echo "Export the valid PG_HINT_PLAN_VERSION variable" && exit 1 \
        ;; \
@@ -452,8 +478,8 @@ FROM build-deps AS pg-cron-pg-build
 COPY --from=pg-build /usr/local/pgsql/ /usr/local/pgsql/

 ENV PATH "/usr/local/pgsql/bin/:$PATH"
-RUN wget https://github.com/citusdata/pg_cron/archive/refs/tags/v1.5.2.tar.gz -O pg_cron.tar.gz && \
-    echo "6f7f0980c03f1e2a6a747060e67bf4a303ca2a50e941e2c19daeed2b44dec744 pg_cron.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
+RUN wget https://github.com/citusdata/pg_cron/archive/refs/tags/v1.6.0.tar.gz -O pg_cron.tar.gz && \
+    echo "383a627867d730222c272bfd25cd5e151c578d73f696d32910c7db8c665cc7db pg_cron.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
    mkdir pg_cron-src && cd pg_cron-src && tar xvzf ../pg_cron.tar.gz --strip-components=1 -C . && \
    make -j $(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN) && \
    make -j $(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN) install && \
@@ -479,8 +505,8 @@ RUN apt-get update && \
        libfreetype6-dev

 ENV PATH "/usr/local/pgsql/bin/:/usr/local/pgsql/:$PATH"
-RUN wget https://github.com/rdkit/rdkit/archive/refs/tags/Release_2023_03_1.tar.gz -O rdkit.tar.gz && \
-    echo "db346afbd0ba52c843926a2a62f8a38c7b774ffab37eaf382d789a824f21996c rdkit.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
+RUN wget https://github.com/rdkit/rdkit/archive/refs/tags/Release_2023_03_3.tar.gz -O rdkit.tar.gz && \
+    echo "bdbf9a2e6988526bfeb8c56ce3cdfe2998d60ac289078e2215374288185e8c8d rdkit.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
    mkdir rdkit-src && cd rdkit-src && tar xvzf ../rdkit.tar.gz --strip-components=1 -C . && \
    cmake \
        -D RDK_BUILD_CAIRO_SUPPORT=OFF \
@@ -551,12 +577,19 @@ FROM build-deps AS pg-embedding-pg-build
 COPY --from=pg-build /usr/local/pgsql/ /usr/local/pgsql/

 ENV PATH "/usr/local/pgsql/bin/:$PATH"
-RUN wget https://github.com/neondatabase/pg_embedding/archive/refs/tags/0.3.5.tar.gz -O pg_embedding.tar.gz && \
-    echo "0e95b27b8b6196e2cf0a0c9ec143fe2219b82e54c5bb4ee064e76398cbe69ae9 pg_embedding.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
+RUN case "${PG_VERSION}" in \
+      "v14" | "v15") \
+        export PG_EMBEDDING_VERSION=0.3.5 \
+        export PG_EMBEDDING_CHECKSUM=0e95b27b8b6196e2cf0a0c9ec143fe2219b82e54c5bb4ee064e76398cbe69ae9 \
+        ;; \
+      *) \
+        echo "pg_embedding not supported on this PostgreSQL version. Use pgvector instead." && exit 0;; \
+    esac && \
+    wget https://github.com/neondatabase/pg_embedding/archive/refs/tags/${PG_EMBEDDING_VERSION}.tar.gz -O pg_embedding.tar.gz && \
+    echo "${PG_EMBEDDING_CHECKSUM} pg_embedding.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
    mkdir pg_embedding-src && cd pg_embedding-src && tar xvzf ../pg_embedding.tar.gz --strip-components=1 -C . && \
    make -j $(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN) && \
-    make -j $(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN) install && \
-    echo 'trusted = true' >> /usr/local/pgsql/share/extension/embedding.control
+    make -j $(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN) install

 #########################################################################################
 #
@@ -582,7 +615,7 @@ RUN wget https://gitlab.com/dalibo/postgresql_anonymizer/-/archive/1.1.0/postgre
 #########################################################################################
 #
 # Layer "rust extensions"
-# This layer is used to build `pgx` deps
+# This layer is used to build `pgrx` deps
 #
 #########################################################################################
 FROM build-deps AS rust-extensions-build
@@ -602,8 +635,8 @@ RUN curl -sSO https://static.rust-lang.org/rustup/dist/$(uname -m)-unknown-linux
    chmod +x rustup-init && \
    ./rustup-init -y --no-modify-path --profile minimal --default-toolchain stable && \
    rm rustup-init && \
-    cargo install --locked --version 0.7.3 cargo-pgx && \
-    /bin/bash -c 'cargo pgx init --pg${PG_VERSION:1}=/usr/local/pgsql/bin/pg_config'
+    cargo install --locked --version 0.10.2 cargo-pgrx && \
+    /bin/bash -c 'cargo pgrx init --pg${PG_VERSION:1}=/usr/local/pgsql/bin/pg_config'

 USER root

@@ -615,14 +648,13 @@ USER root
 #########################################################################################

 FROM rust-extensions-build AS pg-jsonschema-pg-build
+ARG PG_VERSION

-# caeab60d70b2fd3ae421ec66466a3abbb37b7ee6 made on 06/03/2023
-# there is no release tag yet, but we need it due to the superuser fix in the control file, switch to git tag after release >= 0.1.5
-RUN wget https://github.com/supabase/pg_jsonschema/archive/caeab60d70b2fd3ae421ec66466a3abbb37b7ee6.tar.gz -O pg_jsonschema.tar.gz && \
-    echo "54129ce2e7ee7a585648dbb4cef6d73f795d94fe72f248ac01119992518469a4 pg_jsonschema.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
+RUN wget https://github.com/supabase/pg_jsonschema/archive/refs/tags/v0.2.0.tar.gz -O pg_jsonschema.tar.gz && \
+    echo "9118fc508a6e231e7a39acaa6f066fcd79af17a5db757b47d2eefbe14f7794f0 pg_jsonschema.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
    mkdir pg_jsonschema-src && cd pg_jsonschema-src && tar xvzf ../pg_jsonschema.tar.gz --strip-components=1 -C . && \
-    sed -i 's/pgx = "0.7.1"/pgx = { version = "0.7.3", features = [ "unsafe-postgres" ] }/g' Cargo.toml && \
-    cargo pgx install --release && \
+    sed -i 's/pgrx = "0.10.2"/pgrx = { version = "0.10.2", features = [ "unsafe-postgres" ] }/g' Cargo.toml && \
+    cargo pgrx install --release && \
    echo "trusted = true" >> /usr/local/pgsql/share/extension/pg_jsonschema.control

 #########################################################################################
@@ -633,17 +665,13 @@ RUN wget https://github.com/supabase/pg_jsonschema/archive/caeab60d70b2fd3ae421e
 #########################################################################################

 FROM rust-extensions-build AS pg-graphql-pg-build
+ARG PG_VERSION

-# b4988843647450a153439be367168ed09971af85 made on 22/02/2023 (from remove-pgx-contrib-spiext branch)
-# Currently pgx version bump to >= 0.7.2  causes "call to unsafe function" compliation errors in
-# pgx-contrib-spiext. There is a branch that removes that dependency, so use it. It is on the
-# same 1.1 version we've used before.
-RUN wget https://github.com/yrashk/pg_graphql/archive/b4988843647450a153439be367168ed09971af85.tar.gz -O pg_graphql.tar.gz && \
-    echo "0c7b0e746441b2ec24187d0e03555faf935c2159e2839bddd14df6dafbc8c9bd pg_graphql.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
+RUN wget https://github.com/supabase/pg_graphql/archive/refs/tags/v1.4.0.tar.gz -O pg_graphql.tar.gz && \
+    echo "bd8dc7230282b3efa9ae5baf053a54151ed0e66881c7c53750e2d0c765776edc pg_graphql.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
    mkdir pg_graphql-src && cd pg_graphql-src && tar xvzf ../pg_graphql.tar.gz --strip-components=1 -C . && \
-    sed -i 's/pgx = "~0.7.1"/pgx = { version = "0.7.3", features = [ "unsafe-postgres" ] }/g' Cargo.toml && \
-    sed -i 's/pgx-tests = "~0.7.1"/pgx-tests = "0.7.3"/g' Cargo.toml && \
-    cargo pgx install --release && \
+    sed -i 's/pgrx = "=0.10.2"/pgrx = { version = "0.10.2", features = [ "unsafe-postgres" ] }/g' Cargo.toml && \
+    cargo pgrx install --release && \
    # it's needed to enable extension because it uses untrusted C language
    sed -i 's/superuser = false/superuser = true/g' /usr/local/pgsql/share/extension/pg_graphql.control && \
    echo "trusted = true" >> /usr/local/pgsql/share/extension/pg_graphql.control
@@ -656,12 +684,13 @@ RUN wget https://github.com/yrashk/pg_graphql/archive/b4988843647450a153439be367
 #########################################################################################

 FROM rust-extensions-build AS pg-tiktoken-pg-build
+ARG PG_VERSION

-# 801f84f08c6881c8aa30f405fafbf00eec386a72 made on 10/03/2023
-RUN wget https://github.com/kelvich/pg_tiktoken/archive/801f84f08c6881c8aa30f405fafbf00eec386a72.tar.gz -O pg_tiktoken.tar.gz && \
-    echo "52f60ac800993a49aa8c609961842b611b6b1949717b69ce2ec9117117e16e4a pg_tiktoken.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
+# 26806147b17b60763039c6a6878884c41a262318 made on 26/09/2023
+RUN wget https://github.com/kelvich/pg_tiktoken/archive/26806147b17b60763039c6a6878884c41a262318.tar.gz -O pg_tiktoken.tar.gz && \
+    echo "e64e55aaa38c259512d3e27c572da22c4637418cf124caba904cd50944e5004e pg_tiktoken.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
    mkdir pg_tiktoken-src && cd pg_tiktoken-src && tar xvzf ../pg_tiktoken.tar.gz --strip-components=1 -C . && \
-    cargo pgx install --release && \
+    cargo pgrx install --release && \
    echo "trusted = true" >> /usr/local/pgsql/share/extension/pg_tiktoken.control

 #########################################################################################
@@ -672,12 +701,17 @@ RUN wget https://github.com/kelvich/pg_tiktoken/archive/801f84f08c6881c8aa30f405
 #########################################################################################

 FROM rust-extensions-build AS pg-pgx-ulid-build
+ARG PG_VERSION

-RUN wget https://github.com/pksunkara/pgx_ulid/archive/refs/tags/v0.1.0.tar.gz -O pgx_ulid.tar.gz && \
-    echo "908b7358e6f846e87db508ae5349fb56a88ee6305519074b12f3d5b0ff09f791 pgx_ulid.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
+RUN wget https://github.com/pksunkara/pgx_ulid/archive/refs/tags/v0.1.3.tar.gz -O pgx_ulid.tar.gz && \
+    echo "ee5db82945d2d9f2d15597a80cf32de9dca67b897f605beb830561705f12683c pgx_ulid.tar.gz" | sha256sum --check && \
    mkdir pgx_ulid-src && cd pgx_ulid-src && tar xvzf ../pgx_ulid.tar.gz --strip-components=1 -C . && \
-    sed -i 's/pgx        = "=0.7.3"/pgx = { version = "0.7.3", features = [ "unsafe-postgres" ] }/g' Cargo.toml && \
-    cargo pgx install --release && \
+    echo "******************* Apply a patch for Postgres 16 support; delete in the next release ******************" && \
+    wget https://github.com/pksunkara/pgx_ulid/commit/f84954cf63fc8c80d964ac970d9eceed3c791196.patch && \
+    patch -p1 < f84954cf63fc8c80d964ac970d9eceed3c791196.patch && \
+    echo "********************************************************************************************************" && \
+    sed -i 's/pgrx       = "=0.10.2"/pgrx = { version = "=0.10.2", features = [ "unsafe-postgres" ] }/g' Cargo.toml && \
+    cargo pgrx install --release && \
    echo "trusted = true" >> /usr/local/pgsql/share/extension/ulid.control

 #########################################################################################
@@ -726,6 +760,20 @@ RUN make -j $(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN) \
        PG_CONFIG=/usr/local/pgsql/bin/pg_config \
        -C pgxn/neon_utils \
        -s install && \
+    make -j $(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN) \
+        PG_CONFIG=/usr/local/pgsql/bin/pg_config \
+        -C pgxn/neon_rmgr \
+        -s install && \
+    case "${PG_VERSION}" in \
+        "v14" | "v15") \
+        ;; \
+        "v16") \
+            echo "Skipping HNSW for PostgreSQL 16" && exit 0 \
+        ;; \
+        *) \
+            echo "unexpected PostgreSQL version" && exit 1 \
+        ;; \
+        esac && \
    make -j $(getconf _NPROCESSORS_ONLN) \
        PG_CONFIG=/usr/local/pgsql/bin/pg_config \
        -C pgxn/hnsw \
@@ -764,29 +812,6 @@ RUN rm -r /usr/local/pgsql/include
 # if they were to be used by other libraries.
 RUN rm /usr/local/pgsql/lib/lib*.a

-#########################################################################################
-#
-# Extenstion only
-#
-#########################################################################################
-FROM python:3.9-slim-bullseye AS generate-ext-index
-ARG PG_VERSION
-ARG BUILD_TAG
-RUN apt update && apt install -y zstd
-
-# copy the control files here
-COPY --from=kq-imcx-pg-build /extensions/ /extensions/
-COPY --from=pg-anon-pg-build /extensions/ /extensions/
-COPY --from=postgis-build /extensions/ /extensions/
-COPY scripts/combine_control_files.py ./combine_control_files.py
-RUN python3 ./combine_control_files.py ${PG_VERSION} ${BUILD_TAG} --public_extensions="anon,postgis"
-
-FROM scratch AS postgres-extensions
-# After the transition this layer will include all extensitons.
-# As for now, it's only a couple for testing purposses
-COPY --from=generate-ext-index /extensions/*.tar.zst /extensions/
-COPY --from=generate-ext-index /ext_index.json /ext_index.json
-
 #########################################################################################
 #
 # Final layer
--- a/83
+++ b/83
@@ -29,6 +29,7 @@ else ifeq ($(UNAME_S),Darwin)
 	# It can be configured with OPENSSL_PREFIX variable
 	OPENSSL_PREFIX ?= $(shell brew --prefix openssl@3)
 	PG_CONFIGURE_OPTS += --with-includes=$(OPENSSL_PREFIX)/include --with-libraries=$(OPENSSL_PREFIX)/lib
+	PG_CONFIGURE_OPTS += PKG_CONFIG_PATH=$(shell brew --prefix icu4c)/lib/pkgconfig
 	# macOS already has bison and flex in the system, but they are old and result in postgres-v14 target failure
 	# brew formulae are keg-only and not symlinked into HOMEBREW_PREFIX, force their usage
 	EXTRA_PATH_OVERRIDES += $(shell brew --prefix bison)/bin/:$(shell brew --prefix flex)/bin/:
@@ -61,7 +62,7 @@ all: neon postgres neon-pg-ext
 #
 # The 'postgres_ffi' depends on the Postgres headers.
 .PHONY: neon
-neon: postgres-headers
+neon: postgres-headers walproposer-lib
 	+@echo "Compiling Neon"
 	$(CARGO_CMD_PREFIX) cargo build $(CARGO_BUILD_FLAGS)

@@ -71,6 +72,10 @@ neon: postgres-headers
 #
 $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/%/config.status:
 	+@echo "Configuring Postgres $* build"
+	@test -s $(ROOT_PROJECT_DIR)/vendor/postgres-$*/configure || { \
+		echo "\nPostgres submodule not found in $(ROOT_PROJECT_DIR)/vendor/postgres-$*/, execute "; \
+		echo "'git submodule update --init --recursive --depth 2 --progress .' in project root.\n"; \
+		exit 1; }
 	mkdir -p $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/$*
 	(cd $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/$* && \
 	env PATH="$(EXTRA_PATH_OVERRIDES):$$PATH" $(ROOT_PROJECT_DIR)/vendor/postgres-$*/configure \
@@ -83,6 +88,8 @@ $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/%/config.status:
 # I'm not sure why it wouldn't work, but this is the only place (apart from
 # the "build-all-versions" entry points) where direct mention of PostgreSQL
 # versions is used.
+.PHONY: postgres-configure-v16
+postgres-configure-v16: $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/v16/config.status
 .PHONY: postgres-configure-v15
 postgres-configure-v15: $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/v15/config.status
 .PHONY: postgres-configure-v14
@@ -118,6 +125,10 @@ postgres-clean-%:
 	$(MAKE) -C $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/$*/contrib/pageinspect clean
 	$(MAKE) -C $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/$*/src/interfaces/libpq clean

+.PHONY: postgres-check-%
+postgres-check-%: postgres-%
+	$(MAKE) -C $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/$* MAKELEVEL=0 check
+
 .PHONY: neon-pg-ext-%
 neon-pg-ext-%: postgres-%
 	+@echo "Compiling neon $*"
@@ -130,6 +141,11 @@ neon-pg-ext-%: postgres-%
 	$(MAKE) PG_CONFIG=$(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/$*/bin/pg_config CFLAGS='$(PG_CFLAGS) $(COPT)' \
 		-C $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/neon-walredo-$* \
 		-f $(ROOT_PROJECT_DIR)/pgxn/neon_walredo/Makefile install
+	+@echo "Compiling neon_rmgr $*"
+	mkdir -p $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/neon-rmgr-$*
+	$(MAKE) PG_CONFIG=$(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/$*/bin/pg_config CFLAGS='$(PG_CFLAGS) $(COPT)' \
+		-C $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/neon-rmgr-$* \
+		-f $(ROOT_PROJECT_DIR)/pgxn/neon_rmgr/Makefile install
 	+@echo "Compiling neon_test_utils $*"
 	mkdir -p $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/neon-test-utils-$*
 	$(MAKE) PG_CONFIG=$(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/$*/bin/pg_config CFLAGS='$(PG_CFLAGS) $(COPT)' \
@@ -140,11 +156,6 @@ neon-pg-ext-%: postgres-%
 	$(MAKE) PG_CONFIG=$(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/$*/bin/pg_config CFLAGS='$(PG_CFLAGS) $(COPT)' \
 		-C $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/neon-utils-$* \
 		-f $(ROOT_PROJECT_DIR)/pgxn/neon_utils/Makefile install
-	+@echo "Compiling hnsw $*"
-	mkdir -p $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/hnsw-$*
-	$(MAKE) PG_CONFIG=$(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/$*/bin/pg_config CFLAGS='$(PG_CFLAGS) $(COPT)' \
-		-C $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/hnsw-$* \
-		-f $(ROOT_PROJECT_DIR)/pgxn/hnsw/Makefile install

 .PHONY: neon-pg-ext-clean-%
 neon-pg-ext-clean-%:
@@ -160,35 +171,79 @@ neon-pg-ext-clean-%:
 	$(MAKE) PG_CONFIG=$(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/$*/bin/pg_config \
 	-C $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/neon-utils-$* \
 	-f $(ROOT_PROJECT_DIR)/pgxn/neon_utils/Makefile clean
-	$(MAKE) PG_CONFIG=$(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/$*/bin/pg_config \
-	-C $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/hnsw-$* \
-	-f $(ROOT_PROJECT_DIR)/pgxn/hnsw/Makefile clean
+
+# Build walproposer as a static library. walproposer source code is located
+# in the pgxn/neon directory.
+# 
+# We also need to include libpgport.a and libpgcommon.a, because walproposer
+# uses some functions from those libraries.
+# 
+# Some object files are removed from libpgport.a and libpgcommon.a because
+# they depend on openssl and other libraries that are not included in our
+# Rust build.
+.PHONY: walproposer-lib
+walproposer-lib: neon-pg-ext-v16
+	+@echo "Compiling walproposer-lib"
+	mkdir -p $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/walproposer-lib
+	$(MAKE) PG_CONFIG=$(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/v16/bin/pg_config CFLAGS='$(PG_CFLAGS) $(COPT)' \
+		-C $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/walproposer-lib \
+		-f $(ROOT_PROJECT_DIR)/pgxn/neon/Makefile walproposer-lib
+	cp $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/v16/lib/libpgport.a $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/walproposer-lib
+	cp $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/v16/lib/libpgcommon.a $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/walproposer-lib
+ifeq ($(UNAME_S),Linux)
+	$(AR) d $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/walproposer-lib/libpgport.a \
+		pg_strong_random.o
+	$(AR) d $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/walproposer-lib/libpgcommon.a \
+		pg_crc32c.o \
+		hmac_openssl.o \
+		cryptohash_openssl.o \
+		scram-common.o \
+		md5_common.o \
+		checksum_helper.o
+endif
+
+.PHONY: walproposer-lib-clean
+walproposer-lib-clean:
+	$(MAKE) PG_CONFIG=$(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/v16/bin/pg_config \
+		-C $(POSTGRES_INSTALL_DIR)/build/walproposer-lib \
+		-f $(ROOT_PROJECT_DIR)/pgxn/neon/Makefile clean

 .PHONY: neon-pg-ext
 neon-pg-ext: \
 	neon-pg-ext-v14 \
-	neon-pg-ext-v15
+	neon-pg-ext-v15 \
+	neon-pg-ext-v16

 .PHONY: neon-pg-ext-clean
 neon-pg-ext-clean: \
 	neon-pg-ext-clean-v14 \
-	neon-pg-ext-clean-v15
+	neon-pg-ext-clean-v15 \
+	neon-pg-ext-clean-v16

 # shorthand to build all Postgres versions
 .PHONY: postgres
 postgres: \
 	postgres-v14 \
-	postgres-v15
+	postgres-v15 \
+	postgres-v16

 .PHONY: postgres-headers
 postgres-headers: \
 	postgres-headers-v14 \
-	postgres-headers-v15
+	postgres-headers-v15 \
+	postgres-headers-v16

 .PHONY: postgres-clean
 postgres-clean: \
 	postgres-clean-v14 \
-	postgres-clean-v15
+	postgres-clean-v15 \
+	postgres-clean-v16
+
+.PHONY: postgres-check
+postgres-check: \
+	postgres-check-v14 \
+	postgres-check-v15 \
+	postgres-check-v16

 # This doesn't remove the effects of 'configure'.
 .PHONY: clean
--- a/4
+++ b/4
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 Neon
 Copyright 2022 Neon Inc.

-The PostgreSQL submodules in vendor/postgres-v14 and vendor/postgres-v15 are licensed under the
-PostgreSQL license. See vendor/postgres-v14/COPYRIGHT and vendor/postgres-v15/COPYRIGHT.
+The PostgreSQL submodules in vendor/ are licensed under the PostgreSQL license.
+See vendor/postgres-vX/COPYRIGHT for details.
--- a/README.md
+++ b/README.md
@@ -29,18 +29,18 @@ See developer documentation in [SUMMARY.md](/docs/SUMMARY.md) for more informati
 ```bash
 apt install build-essential libtool libreadline-dev zlib1g-dev flex bison libseccomp-dev \
 libssl-dev clang pkg-config libpq-dev cmake postgresql-client protobuf-compiler \
-libcurl4-openssl-dev openssl python-poetry
+libcurl4-openssl-dev openssl python-poetry lsof libicu-dev
 ```
 * On Fedora, these packages are needed:
 ```bash
 dnf install flex bison readline-devel zlib-devel openssl-devel \
  libseccomp-devel perl clang cmake postgresql postgresql-contrib protobuf-compiler \
-  protobuf-devel libcurl-devel openssl poetry
+  protobuf-devel libcurl-devel openssl poetry lsof libicu-devel
 ```
 * On Arch based systems, these packages are needed:
 ```bash
 pacman -S base-devel readline zlib libseccomp openssl clang \
-postgresql-libs cmake postgresql protobuf curl
+postgresql-libs cmake postgresql protobuf curl lsof
 ```

 Building Neon requires 3.15+ version of `protoc` (protobuf-compiler). If your distribution provides an older version, you can install a newer version from [here](https://github.com/protocolbuffers/protobuf/releases).
@@ -55,7 +55,7 @@ curl --proto '=https' --tlsv1.2 -sSf https://sh.rustup.rs | sh
 1. Install XCode and dependencies
 ```
 xcode-select --install
-brew install protobuf openssl flex bison
+brew install protobuf openssl flex bison icu4c pkg-config

 # add openssl to PATH, required for ed25519 keys generation in neon_local
 echo 'export PATH="$(brew --prefix openssl)/bin:$PATH"' >> ~/.zshrc
--- a/clippy.toml
+++ b/clippy.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+disallowed-methods = [
+    "tokio::task::block_in_place",
+    # Allow this for now, to deny it later once we stop using Handle::block_on completely
+    # "tokio::runtime::Handle::block_on",
+]
--- a/compute_tools/Cargo.toml
+++ b/compute_tools/Cargo.toml
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ license.workspace = true
 anyhow.workspace = true
 async-compression.workspace = true
 chrono.workspace = true
+cfg-if.workspace = true
 clap.workspace = true
 flate2.workspace = true
 futures.workspace = true
@@ -23,6 +24,7 @@ tar.workspace = true
 reqwest = { workspace = true, features = ["json"] }
 tokio = { workspace = true, features = ["rt", "rt-multi-thread"] }
 tokio-postgres.workspace = true
+tokio-util.workspace = true
 tracing.workspace = true
 tracing-opentelemetry.workspace = true
 tracing-subscriber.workspace = true
@@ -34,4 +36,5 @@ utils.workspace = true
 workspace_hack.workspace = true
 toml_edit.workspace = true
 remote_storage = { version = "0.1", path = "../libs/remote_storage/" }
+vm_monitor = { version = "0.1", path = "../libs/vm_monitor/" }
 zstd = "0.12.4"
--- a/compute_tools/README.md
+++ b/compute_tools/README.md
@@ -19,9 +19,10 @@ Also `compute_ctl` spawns two separate service threads:
 - `http-endpoint` runs a Hyper HTTP API server, which serves readiness and the
  last activity requests.

-If the `vm-informant` binary is present at `/bin/vm-informant`, it will also be started. For VM
-compute nodes, `vm-informant` communicates with the VM autoscaling system. It coordinates
-downscaling and (eventually) will request immediate upscaling under resource pressure.
+If `AUTOSCALING` environment variable is set, `compute_ctl` will start the
+`vm-monitor` located in [`neon/libs/vm_monitor`]. For VM compute nodes,
+`vm-monitor` communicates with the VM autoscaling system. It coordinates
+downscaling and requests immediate upscaling under resource pressure.

 Usage example:
 ```sh
--- a/compute_tools/src/bin/compute_ctl.rs
+++ b/compute_tools/src/bin/compute_ctl.rs
@@ -20,9 +20,10 @@
 //! - `http-endpoint` runs a Hyper HTTP API server, which serves readiness and the
 //!   last activity requests.
 //!
-//! If the `vm-informant` binary is present at `/bin/vm-informant`, it will also be started. For VM
-//! compute nodes, `vm-informant` communicates with the VM autoscaling system. It coordinates
-//! downscaling and (eventually) will request immediate upscaling under resource pressure.
+//! If `AUTOSCALING` environment variable is set, `compute_ctl` will start the
+//! `vm-monitor` located in [`neon/libs/vm_monitor`]. For VM compute nodes,
+//! `vm-monitor` communicates with the VM autoscaling system. It coordinates
+//! downscaling and requests immediate upscaling under resource pressure.
 //!
 //! Usage example:
 //! ```sh
@@ -35,7 +36,6 @@
 //!
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::fs::File;
-use std::panic;
 use std::path::Path;
 use std::process::exit;
 use std::sync::{mpsc, Arc, Condvar, Mutex, RwLock};
@@ -156,6 +156,7 @@ fn main() -> Result<()> {
                let path = Path::new(sp);
                let file = File::open(path)?;
                spec = Some(serde_json::from_reader(file)?);
+                live_config_allowed = true;
            } else if let Some(id) = compute_id {
                if let Some(cp_base) = control_plane_uri {
                    live_config_allowed = true;
@@ -271,6 +272,50 @@ fn main() -> Result<()> {
        }
    };

+    // Start the vm-monitor if directed to. The vm-monitor only runs on linux
+    // because it requires cgroups.
+    cfg_if::cfg_if! {
+        if #[cfg(target_os = "linux")] {
+            use std::env;
+            use tokio_util::sync::CancellationToken;
+            let vm_monitor_addr = matches
+                .get_one::<String>("vm-monitor-addr")
+                .expect("--vm-monitor-addr should always be set because it has a default arg");
+            let file_cache_connstr = matches.get_one::<String>("filecache-connstr");
+            let cgroup = matches.get_one::<String>("cgroup");
+
+            // Only make a runtime if we need to.
+            // Note: it seems like you can make a runtime in an inner scope and
+            // if you start a task in it it won't be dropped. However, make it
+            // in the outermost scope just to be safe.
+            let rt = if env::var_os("AUTOSCALING").is_some() {
+                Some(
+                    tokio::runtime::Builder::new_multi_thread()
+                        .worker_threads(4)
+                        .enable_all()
+                        .build()
+                        .expect("failed to create tokio runtime for monitor")
+                )
+            } else {
+                None
+            };
+
+            // This token is used internally by the monitor to clean up all threads
+            let token = CancellationToken::new();
+
+            let vm_monitor = &rt.as_ref().map(|rt| {
+                rt.spawn(vm_monitor::start(
+                    Box::leak(Box::new(vm_monitor::Args {
+                        cgroup: cgroup.cloned(),
+                        pgconnstr: file_cache_connstr.cloned(),
+                        addr: vm_monitor_addr.clone(),
+                    })),
+                    token.clone(),
+                ))
+            });
+        }
+    }
+
    // Wait for the child Postgres process forever. In this state Ctrl+C will
    // propagate to Postgres and it will be shut down as well.
    if let Some(mut pg) = pg {
@@ -284,6 +329,24 @@ fn main() -> Result<()> {
        exit_code = ecode.code()
    }

+    // Terminate the vm_monitor so it releases the file watcher on
+    // /sys/fs/cgroup/neon-postgres.
+    // Note: the vm-monitor only runs on linux because it requires cgroups.
+    cfg_if::cfg_if! {
+        if #[cfg(target_os = "linux")] {
+            if let Some(handle) = vm_monitor {
+                // Kills all threads spawned by the monitor
+                token.cancel();
+                // Kills the actual task running the monitor
+                handle.abort();
+
+                // If handle is some, rt must have been used to produce it, and
+                // hence is also some
+                rt.unwrap().shutdown_timeout(Duration::from_secs(2));
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
    // Maybe sync safekeepers again, to speed up next startup
    let compute_state = compute.state.lock().unwrap().clone();
    let pspec = compute_state.pspec.as_ref().expect("spec must be set");
@@ -393,6 +456,36 @@ fn cli() -> clap::Command {
                .long("remote-ext-config")
                .value_name("REMOTE_EXT_CONFIG"),
        )
+        // TODO(fprasx): we currently have default arguments because the cloud PR
+        // to pass them in hasn't been merged yet. We should get rid of them once
+        // the PR is merged.
+        .arg(
+            Arg::new("vm-monitor-addr")
+                .long("vm-monitor-addr")
+                .default_value("0.0.0.0:10301")
+                .value_name("VM_MONITOR_ADDR"),
+        )
+        .arg(
+            Arg::new("cgroup")
+                .long("cgroup")
+                .default_value("neon-postgres")
+                .value_name("CGROUP"),
+        )
+        .arg(
+            Arg::new("filecache-connstr")
+                .long("filecache-connstr")
+                .default_value(
+                    "host=localhost port=5432 dbname=postgres user=cloud_admin sslmode=disable",
+                )
+                .value_name("FILECACHE_CONNSTR"),
+        )
+        .arg(
+            // DEPRECATED, NO LONGER DOES ANYTHING.
+            // See https://github.com/neondatabase/cloud/issues/7516
+            Arg::new("file-cache-on-disk")
+                .long("file-cache-on-disk")
+                .action(clap::ArgAction::SetTrue),
+        )
 }

 #[test]
--- a/compute_tools/src/checker.rs
+++ b/compute_tools/src/checker.rs
@@ -1,12 +1,39 @@
-use anyhow::{anyhow, Result};
+use anyhow::{anyhow, Ok, Result};
+use postgres::Client;
 use tokio_postgres::NoTls;
-use tracing::{error, instrument};
+use tracing::{error, instrument, warn};

 use crate::compute::ComputeNode;

+/// Create a special service table for availability checks
+/// only if it does not exist already.
+pub fn create_availability_check_data(client: &mut Client) -> Result<()> {
+    let query = "
+        DO $$
+        BEGIN
+            IF NOT EXISTS(
+                SELECT 1
+                FROM pg_catalog.pg_tables
+                WHERE tablename = 'health_check'
+            )
+            THEN
+            CREATE TABLE health_check (
+                id serial primary key,
+                updated_at timestamptz default now()
+            );
+            INSERT INTO health_check VALUES (1, now())
+                ON CONFLICT (id) DO UPDATE
+                 SET updated_at = now();
+            END IF;
+        END
+        $$;";
+    client.execute(query, &[])?;
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
 /// Update timestamp in a row in a special service table to check
 /// that we can actually write some data in this particular timeline.
-/// Create table if it's missing.
 #[instrument(skip_all)]
 pub async fn check_writability(compute: &ComputeNode) -> Result<()> {
    // Connect to the database.
@@ -24,21 +51,28 @@ pub async fn check_writability(compute: &ComputeNode) -> Result<()> {
    });

    let query = "
-    CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS health_check (
-        id serial primary key,
-        updated_at timestamptz default now()
-    );
    INSERT INTO health_check VALUES (1, now())
        ON CONFLICT (id) DO UPDATE
         SET updated_at = now();";

-    let result = client.simple_query(query).await?;
-
-    if result.len() != 2 {
-        return Err(anyhow::format_err!(
-            "expected 2 query results, but got {}",
-            result.len()
-        ));
+    match client.simple_query(query).await {
+        Result::Ok(result) => {
+            if result.len() != 1 {
+                return Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
+                    "expected 1 query results, but got {}",
+                    result.len()
+                ));
+            }
+        }
+        Err(err) => {
+            if let Some(state) = err.code() {
+                if state == &tokio_postgres::error::SqlState::DISK_FULL {
+                    warn!("Tenant disk is full");
+                    return Ok(());
+                }
+            }
+            return Err(err.into());
+        }
    }

    Ok(())
--- a/compute_tools/src/compute.rs
+++ b/compute_tools/src/compute.rs
@@ -1,4 +1,5 @@
 use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::env;
 use std::fs;
 use std::io::BufRead;
 use std::os::unix::fs::PermissionsExt;
@@ -26,6 +27,7 @@ use utils::measured_stream::MeasuredReader;

 use remote_storage::{DownloadError, GenericRemoteStorage, RemotePath};

+use crate::checker::create_availability_check_data;
 use crate::pg_helpers::*;
 use crate::spec::*;
 use crate::sync_sk::{check_if_synced, ping_safekeeper};
@@ -175,6 +177,27 @@ impl TryFrom<ComputeSpec> for ParsedSpec {
    }
 }

+/// If we are a VM, returns a [`Command`] that will run in the `neon-postgres`
+/// cgroup. Otherwise returns the default `Command::new(cmd)`
+///
+/// This function should be used to start postgres, as it will start it in the
+/// neon-postgres cgroup if we are a VM. This allows autoscaling to control
+/// postgres' resource usage. The cgroup will exist in VMs because vm-builder
+/// creates it during the sysinit phase of its inittab.
+fn maybe_cgexec(cmd: &str) -> Command {
+    // The cplane sets this env var for autoscaling computes.
+    // use `var_os` so we don't have to worry about the variable being valid
+    // unicode. Should never be an concern . . . but just in case
+    if env::var_os("AUTOSCALING").is_some() {
+        let mut command = Command::new("cgexec");
+        command.args(["-g", "memory:neon-postgres"]);
+        command.arg(cmd);
+        command
+    } else {
+        Command::new(cmd)
+    }
+}
+
 /// Create special neon_superuser role, that's a slightly nerfed version of a real superuser
 /// that we give to customers
 fn create_neon_superuser(spec: &ComputeSpec, client: &mut Client) -> Result<()> {
@@ -229,7 +252,7 @@ fn create_neon_superuser(spec: &ComputeSpec, client: &mut Client) -> Result<()>
                    IF NOT EXISTS (
                        SELECT FROM pg_catalog.pg_roles WHERE rolname = 'neon_superuser')
                    THEN
-                        CREATE ROLE neon_superuser CREATEDB CREATEROLE NOLOGIN IN ROLE pg_read_all_data, pg_write_all_data;
+                        CREATE ROLE neon_superuser CREATEDB CREATEROLE NOLOGIN REPLICATION IN ROLE pg_read_all_data, pg_write_all_data;
                        IF array_length(roles, 1) IS NOT NULL THEN
                            EXECUTE format('GRANT neon_superuser TO %s',
                                           array_to_string(ARRAY(SELECT quote_ident(x) FROM unnest(roles) as x), ', '));
@@ -451,7 +474,7 @@ impl ComputeNode {
    pub fn sync_safekeepers(&self, storage_auth_token: Option<String>) -> Result<Lsn> {
        let start_time = Utc::now();

-        let sync_handle = Command::new(&self.pgbin)
+        let sync_handle = maybe_cgexec(&self.pgbin)
            .args(["--sync-safekeepers"])
            .env("PGDATA", &self.pgdata) // we cannot use -D in this mode
            .envs(if let Some(storage_auth_token) = &storage_auth_token {
@@ -586,7 +609,7 @@ impl ComputeNode {

        // Start postgres
        info!("starting postgres");
-        let mut pg = Command::new(&self.pgbin)
+        let mut pg = maybe_cgexec(&self.pgbin)
            .args(["-D", pgdata])
            .spawn()
            .expect("cannot start postgres process");
@@ -614,7 +637,7 @@ impl ComputeNode {
        let pgdata_path = Path::new(&self.pgdata);

        // Run postgres as a child process.
-        let mut pg = Command::new(&self.pgbin)
+        let mut pg = maybe_cgexec(&self.pgbin)
            .args(["-D", &self.pgdata])
            .envs(if let Some(storage_auth_token) = &storage_auth_token {
                vec![("NEON_AUTH_TOKEN", storage_auth_token)]
@@ -669,11 +692,13 @@ impl ComputeNode {
        // Proceed with post-startup configuration. Note, that order of operations is important.
        let spec = &compute_state.pspec.as_ref().expect("spec must be set").spec;
        create_neon_superuser(spec, &mut client)?;
+        cleanup_instance(&mut client)?;
        handle_roles(spec, &mut client)?;
        handle_databases(spec, &mut client)?;
        handle_role_deletions(spec, self.connstr.as_str(), &mut client)?;
-        handle_grants(spec, self.connstr.as_str())?;
+        handle_grants(spec, &mut client, self.connstr.as_str())?;
        handle_extensions(spec, &mut client)?;
+        create_availability_check_data(&mut client)?;

        // 'Close' connection
        drop(client);
@@ -685,8 +710,12 @@ impl ComputeNode {
    // `pg_ctl` for start / stop, so this just seems much easier to do as we already
    // have opened connection to Postgres and superuser access.
    #[instrument(skip_all)]
-    fn pg_reload_conf(&self, client: &mut Client) -> Result<()> {
-        client.simple_query("SELECT pg_reload_conf()")?;
+    fn pg_reload_conf(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        let pgctl_bin = Path::new(&self.pgbin).parent().unwrap().join("pg_ctl");
+        Command::new(pgctl_bin)
+            .args(["reload", "-D", &self.pgdata])
+            .output()
+            .expect("cannot run pg_ctl process");
        Ok(())
    }

@@ -699,18 +728,19 @@ impl ComputeNode {
        // Write new config
        let pgdata_path = Path::new(&self.pgdata);
        config::write_postgres_conf(&pgdata_path.join("postgresql.conf"), &spec, None)?;
+        self.pg_reload_conf()?;

        let mut client = Client::connect(self.connstr.as_str(), NoTls)?;
-        self.pg_reload_conf(&mut client)?;

        // Proceed with post-startup configuration. Note, that order of operations is important.
        // Disable DDL forwarding because control plane already knows about these roles/databases.
        if spec.mode == ComputeMode::Primary {
            client.simple_query("SET neon.forward_ddl = false")?;
+            cleanup_instance(&mut client)?;
            handle_roles(&spec, &mut client)?;
            handle_databases(&spec, &mut client)?;
            handle_role_deletions(&spec, self.connstr.as_str(), &mut client)?;
-            handle_grants(&spec, self.connstr.as_str())?;
+            handle_grants(&spec, &mut client, self.connstr.as_str())?;
            handle_extensions(&spec, &mut client)?;
        }

@@ -1015,7 +1045,7 @@ LIMIT 100",
        let remote_extensions = spec
            .remote_extensions
            .as_ref()
-            .ok_or(anyhow::anyhow!("Remote extensions are not configured",))?;
+            .ok_or(anyhow::anyhow!("Remote extensions are not configured"))?;

        info!("parse shared_preload_libraries from spec.cluster.settings");
        let mut libs_vec = Vec::new();
@@ -1056,7 +1086,8 @@ LIMIT 100",

        let mut download_tasks = Vec::new();
        for library in &libs_vec {
-            let (ext_name, ext_path) = remote_extensions.get_ext(library, true)?;
+            let (ext_name, ext_path) =
+                remote_extensions.get_ext(library, true, &self.build_tag, &self.pgversion)?;
            download_tasks.push(self.download_extension(ext_name, ext_path));
        }
        let results = join_all(download_tasks).await;
--- a/compute_tools/src/config.rs
+++ b/compute_tools/src/config.rs
@@ -46,8 +46,6 @@ pub fn write_postgres_conf(
        writeln!(file, "{}", conf)?;
    }

-    write!(file, "{}", &spec.cluster.settings.as_pg_settings())?;
-
    // Add options for connecting to storage
    writeln!(file, "# Neon storage settings")?;
    if let Some(s) = &spec.pageserver_connstring {
--- a/compute_tools/src/extension_server.rs
+++ b/compute_tools/src/extension_server.rs
@@ -74,10 +74,11 @@ More specifically, here is an example ext_index.json
 use anyhow::Context;
 use anyhow::{self, Result};
 use compute_api::spec::RemoteExtSpec;
+use regex::Regex;
 use remote_storage::*;
 use serde_json;
 use std::io::Read;
-use std::num::{NonZeroU32, NonZeroUsize};
+use std::num::NonZeroUsize;
 use std::path::Path;
 use std::str;
 use tar::Archive;
@@ -106,16 +107,71 @@ fn get_pg_config(argument: &str, pgbin: &str) -> String {

 pub fn get_pg_version(pgbin: &str) -> String {
    // pg_config --version returns a (platform specific) human readable string
-    // such as "PostgreSQL 15.4". We parse this to v14/v15
+    // such as "PostgreSQL 15.4". We parse this to v14/v15/v16 etc.
    let human_version = get_pg_config("--version", pgbin);
-    if human_version.contains("15") {
-        return "v15".to_string();
-    } else if human_version.contains("14") {
-        return "v14".to_string();
+    return parse_pg_version(&human_version).to_string();
+}
+
+fn parse_pg_version(human_version: &str) -> &str {
+    // Normal releases have version strings like "PostgreSQL 15.4". But there
+    // are also pre-release versions like "PostgreSQL 17devel" or "PostgreSQL
+    // 16beta2" or "PostgreSQL 17rc1". And with the --with-extra-version
+    // configure option, you can tack any string to the version number,
+    // e.g. "PostgreSQL 15.4foobar".
+    match Regex::new(r"^PostgreSQL (?<major>\d+).+")
+        .unwrap()
+        .captures(human_version)
+    {
+        Some(captures) if captures.len() == 2 => match &captures["major"] {
+            "14" => return "v14",
+            "15" => return "v15",
+            "16" => return "v16",
+            _ => {}
+        },
+        _ => {}
    }
    panic!("Unsuported postgres version {human_version}");
 }

+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::parse_pg_version;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_parse_pg_version() {
+        assert_eq!(parse_pg_version("PostgreSQL 15.4"), "v15");
+        assert_eq!(parse_pg_version("PostgreSQL 15.14"), "v15");
+        assert_eq!(
+            parse_pg_version("PostgreSQL 15.4 (Ubuntu 15.4-0ubuntu0.23.04.1)"),
+            "v15"
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(parse_pg_version("PostgreSQL 14.15"), "v14");
+        assert_eq!(parse_pg_version("PostgreSQL 14.0"), "v14");
+        assert_eq!(
+            parse_pg_version("PostgreSQL 14.9 (Debian 14.9-1.pgdg120+1"),
+            "v14"
+        );
+
+        assert_eq!(parse_pg_version("PostgreSQL 16devel"), "v16");
+        assert_eq!(parse_pg_version("PostgreSQL 16beta1"), "v16");
+        assert_eq!(parse_pg_version("PostgreSQL 16rc2"), "v16");
+        assert_eq!(parse_pg_version("PostgreSQL 16extra"), "v16");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[should_panic]
+    fn test_parse_pg_unsupported_version() {
+        parse_pg_version("PostgreSQL 13.14");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[should_panic]
+    fn test_parse_pg_incorrect_version_format() {
+        parse_pg_version("PostgreSQL 14");
+    }
+}
+
 // download the archive for a given extension,
 // unzip it, and place files in the appropriate locations (share/lib)
 pub async fn download_extension(
@@ -180,7 +236,19 @@ pub async fn download_extension(
 // Create extension control files from spec
 pub fn create_control_files(remote_extensions: &RemoteExtSpec, pgbin: &str) {
    let local_sharedir = Path::new(&get_pg_config("--sharedir", pgbin)).join("extension");
-    for ext_data in remote_extensions.extension_data.values() {
+    for (ext_name, ext_data) in remote_extensions.extension_data.iter() {
+        // Check if extension is present in public or custom.
+        // If not, then it is not allowed to be used by this compute.
+        if let Some(public_extensions) = &remote_extensions.public_extensions {
+            if !public_extensions.contains(ext_name) {
+                if let Some(custom_extensions) = &remote_extensions.custom_extensions {
+                    if !custom_extensions.contains(ext_name) {
+                        continue; // skip this extension, it is not allowed
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
        for (control_name, control_content) in &ext_data.control_data {
            let control_path = local_sharedir.join(control_name);
            if !control_path.exists() {
@@ -213,8 +281,6 @@ pub fn init_remote_storage(remote_ext_config: &str) -> anyhow::Result<GenericRem
        max_keys_per_list_response: None,
    };
    let config = RemoteStorageConfig {
-        max_concurrent_syncs: NonZeroUsize::new(100).expect("100 != 0"),
-        max_sync_errors: NonZeroU32::new(100).expect("100 != 0"),
        storage: RemoteStorageKind::AwsS3(config),
    };
    GenericRemoteStorage::from_config(&config)
--- a/compute_tools/src/http/api.rs
+++ b/compute_tools/src/http/api.rs
@@ -1,4 +1,6 @@
 use std::convert::Infallible;
+use std::net::IpAddr;
+use std::net::Ipv6Addr;
 use std::net::SocketAddr;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::thread;
@@ -169,7 +171,12 @@ async fn routes(req: Request<Body>, compute: &Arc<ComputeNode>) -> Response<Body
                    }
                };

-                remote_extensions.get_ext(&filename, is_library)
+                remote_extensions.get_ext(
+                    &filename,
+                    is_library,
+                    &compute.build_tag,
+                    &compute.pgversion,
+                )
            };

            match ext {
@@ -293,7 +300,9 @@ fn render_json_error(e: &str, status: StatusCode) -> Response<Body> {
 // Main Hyper HTTP server function that runs it and blocks waiting on it forever.
 #[tokio::main]
 async fn serve(port: u16, state: Arc<ComputeNode>) {
-    let addr = SocketAddr::from(([0, 0, 0, 0], port));
+    // this usually binds to both IPv4 and IPv6 on linux
+    // see e.g. https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/pull/34440
+    let addr = SocketAddr::new(IpAddr::from(Ipv6Addr::UNSPECIFIED), port);

    let make_service = make_service_fn(move |_conn| {
        let state = state.clone();
--- a/compute_tools/src/lib.rs
+++ b/compute_tools/src/lib.rs
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
-//!
 //! Various tools and helpers to handle cluster / compute node (Postgres)
 //! configuration.
-//!
+#![deny(unsafe_code)]
+#![deny(clippy::undocumented_unsafe_blocks)]
 pub mod checker;
 pub mod config;
 pub mod configurator;
--- a/compute_tools/src/monitor.rs
+++ b/compute_tools/src/monitor.rs
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 use std::sync::Arc;
-use std::{thread, time};
+use std::{thread, time::Duration};

 use chrono::{DateTime, Utc};
 use postgres::{Client, NoTls};
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ use tracing::{debug, info};

 use crate::compute::ComputeNode;

-const MONITOR_CHECK_INTERVAL: u64 = 500; // milliseconds
+const MONITOR_CHECK_INTERVAL: Duration = Duration::from_millis(500);

 // Spin in a loop and figure out the last activity time in the Postgres.
 // Then update it in the shared state. This function never errors out.
@@ -17,13 +17,12 @@ fn watch_compute_activity(compute: &ComputeNode) {
    let connstr = compute.connstr.as_str();
    // Define `client` outside of the loop to reuse existing connection if it's active.
    let mut client = Client::connect(connstr, NoTls);
-    let timeout = time::Duration::from_millis(MONITOR_CHECK_INTERVAL);

    info!("watching Postgres activity at {}", connstr);

    loop {
        // Should be outside of the write lock to allow others to read while we sleep.
-        thread::sleep(timeout);
+        thread::sleep(MONITOR_CHECK_INTERVAL);

        match &mut client {
            Ok(cli) => {
--- a/compute_tools/src/params.rs
+++ b/compute_tools/src/params.rs
@@ -6,4 +6,4 @@ pub const DEFAULT_LOG_LEVEL: &str = "info";
 //   https://www.postgresql.org/docs/15/auth-password.html
 //
 // So it's safe to set md5 here, as `control-plane` anyway uses SCRAM for all roles.
-pub const PG_HBA_ALL_MD5: &str = "host\tall\t\tall\t\t0.0.0.0/0\t\tmd5";
+pub const PG_HBA_ALL_MD5: &str = "host\tall\t\tall\t\tall\t\tmd5";
--- a/compute_tools/src/pg_helpers.rs
+++ b/compute_tools/src/pg_helpers.rs
@@ -1,3 +1,4 @@
+use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::fmt::Write;
 use std::fs;
 use std::fs::File;
@@ -192,11 +193,16 @@ impl Escaping for PgIdent {
 /// Build a list of existing Postgres roles
 pub fn get_existing_roles(xact: &mut Transaction<'_>) -> Result<Vec<Role>> {
    let postgres_roles = xact
-        .query("SELECT rolname, rolpassword FROM pg_catalog.pg_authid", &[])?
+        .query(
+            "SELECT rolname, rolpassword, rolreplication, rolbypassrls FROM pg_catalog.pg_authid",
+            &[],
+        )?
        .iter()
        .map(|row| Role {
            name: row.get("rolname"),
            encrypted_password: row.get("rolpassword"),
+            replication: Some(row.get("rolreplication")),
+            bypassrls: Some(row.get("rolbypassrls")),
            options: None,
        })
        .collect();
@@ -205,22 +211,37 @@ pub fn get_existing_roles(xact: &mut Transaction<'_>) -> Result<Vec<Role>> {
 }

 /// Build a list of existing Postgres databases
-pub fn get_existing_dbs(client: &mut Client) -> Result<Vec<Database>> {
-    let postgres_dbs = client
+pub fn get_existing_dbs(client: &mut Client) -> Result<HashMap<String, Database>> {
+    // `pg_database.datconnlimit = -2` means that the database is in the
+    // invalid state. See:
+    //   https://github.com/postgres/postgres/commit/a4b4cc1d60f7e8ccfcc8ff8cb80c28ee411ad9a9
+    let postgres_dbs: Vec<Database> = client
        .query(
-            "SELECT datname, datdba::regrole::text as owner
-               FROM pg_catalog.pg_database;",
+            "SELECT
+                datname AS name,
+                datdba::regrole::text AS owner,
+                NOT datallowconn AS restrict_conn,
+                datconnlimit = - 2 AS invalid
+            FROM
+                pg_catalog.pg_database;",
            &[],
        )?
        .iter()
        .map(|row| Database {
-            name: row.get("datname"),
+            name: row.get("name"),
            owner: row.get("owner"),
+            restrict_conn: row.get("restrict_conn"),
+            invalid: row.get("invalid"),
            options: None,
        })
        .collect();

-    Ok(postgres_dbs)
+    let dbs_map = postgres_dbs
+        .iter()
+        .map(|db| (db.name.clone(), db.clone()))
+        .collect::<HashMap<_, _>>();
+
+    Ok(dbs_map)
 }

 /// Wait for Postgres to become ready to accept connections. It's ready to
--- a/compute_tools/src/spec.rs
+++ b/compute_tools/src/spec.rs
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ use crate::params::PG_HBA_ALL_MD5;
 use crate::pg_helpers::*;

 use compute_api::responses::{ControlPlaneComputeStatus, ControlPlaneSpecResponse};
-use compute_api::spec::{ComputeSpec, Database, PgIdent, Role};
+use compute_api::spec::{ComputeSpec, PgIdent, Role};

 // Do control plane request and return response if any. In case of error it
 // returns a bool flag indicating whether it makes sense to retry the request
@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ fn do_control_plane_request(
 ) -> Result<ControlPlaneSpecResponse, (bool, String)> {
    let resp = reqwest::blocking::Client::new()
        .get(uri)
-        .header("Authorization", jwt)
+        .header("Authorization", format!("Bearer {}", jwt))
        .send()
        .map_err(|e| {
            (
@@ -68,7 +68,7 @@ pub fn get_spec_from_control_plane(
    base_uri: &str,
    compute_id: &str,
 ) -> Result<Option<ComputeSpec>> {
-    let cp_uri = format!("{base_uri}/management/api/v2/computes/{compute_id}/spec");
+    let cp_uri = format!("{base_uri}/compute/api/v2/computes/{compute_id}/spec");
    let jwt: String = match std::env::var("NEON_CONTROL_PLANE_TOKEN") {
        Ok(v) => v,
        Err(_) => "".to_string(),
@@ -161,6 +161,38 @@ pub fn add_standby_signal(pgdata_path: &Path) -> Result<()> {
    Ok(())
 }

+/// Compute could be unexpectedly shut down, for example, during the
+/// database dropping. This leaves the database in the invalid state,
+/// which prevents new db creation with the same name. This function
+/// will clean it up before proceeding with catalog updates. All
+/// possible future cleanup operations may go here too.
+#[instrument(skip_all)]
+pub fn cleanup_instance(client: &mut Client) -> Result<()> {
+    let existing_dbs = get_existing_dbs(client)?;
+
+    for (_, db) in existing_dbs {
+        if db.invalid {
+            // After recent commit in Postgres, interrupted DROP DATABASE
+            // leaves the database in the invalid state. According to the
+            // commit message, the only option for user is to drop it again.
+            // See:
+            //   https://github.com/postgres/postgres/commit/a4b4cc1d60f7e8ccfcc8ff8cb80c28ee411ad9a9
+            //
+            // Postgres Neon extension is done the way, that db is de-registered
+            // in the control plane metadata only after it is dropped. So there is
+            // a chance that it still thinks that db should exist. This means
+            // that it will be re-created by `handle_databases()`. Yet, it's fine
+            // as user can just repeat drop (in vanilla Postgres they would need
+            // to do the same, btw).
+            let query = format!("DROP DATABASE IF EXISTS {}", db.name.pg_quote());
+            info!("dropping invalid database {}", db.name);
+            client.execute(query.as_str(), &[])?;
+        }
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
 /// Given a cluster spec json and open transaction it handles roles creation,
 /// deletion and update.
 #[instrument(skip_all)]
@@ -233,6 +265,8 @@ pub fn handle_roles(spec: &ComputeSpec, client: &mut Client) -> Result<()> {
        let action = if let Some(r) = pg_role {
            if (r.encrypted_password.is_none() && role.encrypted_password.is_some())
                || (r.encrypted_password.is_some() && role.encrypted_password.is_none())
+                || !r.bypassrls.unwrap_or(false)
+                || !r.replication.unwrap_or(false)
            {
                RoleAction::Update
            } else if let Some(pg_pwd) = &r.encrypted_password {
@@ -264,13 +298,14 @@ pub fn handle_roles(spec: &ComputeSpec, client: &mut Client) -> Result<()> {
        match action {
            RoleAction::None => {}
            RoleAction::Update => {
-                let mut query: String = format!("ALTER ROLE {} ", name.pg_quote());
+                let mut query: String =
+                    format!("ALTER ROLE {} BYPASSRLS REPLICATION", name.pg_quote());
                query.push_str(&role.to_pg_options());
                xact.execute(query.as_str(), &[])?;
            }
            RoleAction::Create => {
                let mut query: String = format!(
-                    "CREATE ROLE {} CREATEROLE CREATEDB BYPASSRLS IN ROLE neon_superuser",
+                    "CREATE ROLE {} CREATEROLE CREATEDB BYPASSRLS REPLICATION IN ROLE neon_superuser",
                    name.pg_quote()
                );
                info!("role create query: '{}'", &query);
@@ -379,13 +414,13 @@ fn reassign_owned_objects(spec: &ComputeSpec, connstr: &str, role_name: &PgIdent
 /// which together provide us idempotency.
 #[instrument(skip_all)]
 pub fn handle_databases(spec: &ComputeSpec, client: &mut Client) -> Result<()> {
-    let existing_dbs: Vec<Database> = get_existing_dbs(client)?;
+    let existing_dbs = get_existing_dbs(client)?;

    // Print a list of existing Postgres databases (only in debug mode)
    if span_enabled!(Level::INFO) {
        info!("postgres databases:");
-        for r in &existing_dbs {
-            info!("    {}:{}", r.name, r.owner);
+        for (dbname, db) in &existing_dbs {
+            info!("    {}:{}", dbname, db.owner);
        }
    }

@@ -439,8 +474,7 @@ pub fn handle_databases(spec: &ComputeSpec, client: &mut Client) -> Result<()> {
                "rename_db" => {
                    let new_name = op.new_name.as_ref().unwrap();

-                    // XXX: with a limited number of roles it is fine, but consider making it a HashMap
-                    if existing_dbs.iter().any(|r| r.name == op.name) {
+                    if existing_dbs.get(&op.name).is_some() {
                        let query: String = format!(
                            "ALTER DATABASE {} RENAME TO {}",
                            op.name.pg_quote(),
@@ -457,14 +491,12 @@ pub fn handle_databases(spec: &ComputeSpec, client: &mut Client) -> Result<()> {
    }

    // Refresh Postgres databases info to handle possible renames
-    let existing_dbs: Vec<Database> = get_existing_dbs(client)?;
+    let existing_dbs = get_existing_dbs(client)?;

    info!("cluster spec databases:");
    for db in &spec.cluster.databases {
        let name = &db.name;
-
-        // XXX: with a limited number of databases it is fine, but consider making it a HashMap
-        let pg_db = existing_dbs.iter().find(|r| r.name == *name);
+        let pg_db = existing_dbs.get(name);

        enum DatabaseAction {
            None,
@@ -530,13 +562,32 @@ pub fn handle_databases(spec: &ComputeSpec, client: &mut Client) -> Result<()> {
 /// Grant CREATE ON DATABASE to the database owner and do some other alters and grants
 /// to allow users creating trusted extensions and re-creating `public` schema, for example.
 #[instrument(skip_all)]
-pub fn handle_grants(spec: &ComputeSpec, connstr: &str) -> Result<()> {
-    info!("cluster spec grants:");
+pub fn handle_grants(spec: &ComputeSpec, client: &mut Client, connstr: &str) -> Result<()> {
+    info!("modifying database permissions");
+    let existing_dbs = get_existing_dbs(client)?;

    // Do some per-database access adjustments. We'd better do this at db creation time,
    // but CREATE DATABASE isn't transactional. So we cannot create db + do some grants
    // atomically.
    for db in &spec.cluster.databases {
+        match existing_dbs.get(&db.name) {
+            Some(pg_db) => {
+                if pg_db.restrict_conn || pg_db.invalid {
+                    info!(
+                        "skipping grants for db {} (invalid: {}, connections not allowed: {})",
+                        db.name, pg_db.invalid, pg_db.restrict_conn
+                    );
+                    continue;
+                }
+            }
+            None => {
+                bail!(
+                    "database {} doesn't exist in Postgres after handle_databases()",
+                    db.name
+                );
+            }
+        }
+
        let mut conf = Config::from_str(connstr)?;
        conf.dbname(&db.name);

@@ -575,6 +626,11 @@ pub fn handle_grants(spec: &ComputeSpec, connstr: &str) -> Result<()> {

        // Explicitly grant CREATE ON SCHEMA PUBLIC to the web_access user.
        // This is needed because since postgres 15 this privilege is removed by default.
+        // TODO: web_access isn't created for almost 1 year. It could be that we have
+        // active users of 1 year old projects, but hopefully not, so check it and
+        // remove this code if possible. The worst thing that could happen is that
+        // user won't be able to use public schema in NEW databases created in the
+        // very OLD project.
        let grant_query = "DO $$\n\
                BEGIN\n\
                    IF EXISTS(\n\
--- a/compute_tools/tests/pg_helpers_tests.rs
+++ b/compute_tools/tests/pg_helpers_tests.rs
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ mod pg_helpers_tests {
        assert_eq!(
            spec.cluster.settings.as_pg_settings(),
            r#"fsync = off
-wal_level = replica
+wal_level = logical
 hot_standby = on
 neon.safekeepers = '127.0.0.1:6502,127.0.0.1:6503,127.0.0.1:6501'
 wal_log_hints = on
--- a/control_plane/Cargo.toml
+++ b/control_plane/Cargo.toml
@@ -6,12 +6,15 @@ license.workspace = true

 [dependencies]
 anyhow.workspace = true
+camino.workspace = true
 clap.workspace = true
 comfy-table.workspace = true
 git-version.workspace = true
 nix.workspace = true
 once_cell.workspace = true
 postgres.workspace = true
+hex.workspace = true
+hyper.workspace = true
 regex.workspace = true
 reqwest = { workspace = true, features = ["blocking", "json"] }
 serde.workspace = true
@@ -20,6 +23,7 @@ serde_with.workspace = true
 tar.workspace = true
 thiserror.workspace = true
 toml.workspace = true
+tokio.workspace = true
 url.workspace = true
 # Note: Do not directly depend on pageserver or safekeeper; use pageserver_api or safekeeper_api
 # instead, so that recompile times are better.
--- a/control_plane/simple.conf
+++ b/control_plane/simple.conf
@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 # Minimal neon environment with one safekeeper. This is equivalent to the built-in
 # defaults that you get with no --config
-[pageserver]
+[[pageservers]]
+id=1
 listen_pg_addr = '127.0.0.1:64000'
 listen_http_addr = '127.0.0.1:9898'
 pg_auth_type = 'Trust'
--- a/control_plane/src/attachment_service.rs
+++ b/control_plane/src/attachment_service.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,104 @@
+use crate::{background_process, local_env::LocalEnv};
+use anyhow::anyhow;
+use camino::Utf8PathBuf;
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+use std::{path::PathBuf, process::Child};
+use utils::id::{NodeId, TenantId};
+
+pub struct AttachmentService {
+    env: LocalEnv,
+    listen: String,
+    path: PathBuf,
+}
+
+const COMMAND: &str = "attachment_service";
+
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize)]
+pub struct AttachHookRequest {
+    pub tenant_id: TenantId,
+    pub node_id: Option<NodeId>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize)]
+pub struct AttachHookResponse {
+    pub gen: Option<u32>,
+}
+
+impl AttachmentService {
+    pub fn from_env(env: &LocalEnv) -> Self {
+        let path = env.base_data_dir.join("attachments.json");
+
+        // Makes no sense to construct this if pageservers aren't going to use it: assume
+        // pageservers have control plane API set
+        let listen_url = env.control_plane_api.clone().unwrap();
+
+        let listen = format!(
+            "{}:{}",
+            listen_url.host_str().unwrap(),
+            listen_url.port().unwrap()
+        );
+
+        Self {
+            env: env.clone(),
+            path,
+            listen,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn pid_file(&self) -> Utf8PathBuf {
+        Utf8PathBuf::from_path_buf(self.env.base_data_dir.join("attachment_service.pid"))
+            .expect("non-Unicode path")
+    }
+
+    pub fn start(&self) -> anyhow::Result<Child> {
+        let path_str = self.path.to_string_lossy();
+
+        background_process::start_process(
+            COMMAND,
+            &self.env.base_data_dir,
+            &self.env.attachment_service_bin(),
+            ["-l", &self.listen, "-p", &path_str],
+            [],
+            background_process::InitialPidFile::Create(&self.pid_file()),
+            // TODO: a real status check
+            || Ok(true),
+        )
+    }
+
+    pub fn stop(&self, immediate: bool) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+        background_process::stop_process(immediate, COMMAND, &self.pid_file())
+    }
+
+    /// Call into the attach_hook API, for use before handing out attachments to pageservers
+    pub fn attach_hook(
+        &self,
+        tenant_id: TenantId,
+        pageserver_id: NodeId,
+    ) -> anyhow::Result<Option<u32>> {
+        use hyper::StatusCode;
+
+        let url = self
+            .env
+            .control_plane_api
+            .clone()
+            .unwrap()
+            .join("attach-hook")
+            .unwrap();
+        let client = reqwest::blocking::ClientBuilder::new()
+            .build()
+            .expect("Failed to construct http client");
+
+        let request = AttachHookRequest {
+            tenant_id,
+            node_id: Some(pageserver_id),
+        };
+
+        let response = client.post(url).json(&request).send()?;
+        if response.status() != StatusCode::OK {
+            return Err(anyhow!("Unexpected status {}", response.status()));
+        }
+
+        let response = response.json::<AttachHookResponse>()?;
+        Ok(response.gen)
+    }
+}
--- a/control_plane/src/background_process.rs
+++ b/control_plane/src/background_process.rs
@@ -16,12 +16,13 @@ use std::ffi::OsStr;
 use std::io::Write;
 use std::os::unix::prelude::AsRawFd;
 use std::os::unix::process::CommandExt;
-use std::path::{Path, PathBuf};
+use std::path::Path;
 use std::process::{Child, Command};
 use std::time::Duration;
 use std::{fs, io, thread};

 use anyhow::Context;
+use camino::{Utf8Path, Utf8PathBuf};
 use nix::errno::Errno;
 use nix::fcntl::{FcntlArg, FdFlag};
 use nix::sys::signal::{kill, Signal};
@@ -45,9 +46,9 @@ const NOTICE_AFTER_RETRIES: u64 = 50;
 /// it itself.
 pub enum InitialPidFile<'t> {
    /// Create a pidfile, to allow future CLI invocations to manipulate the process.
-    Create(&'t Path),
+    Create(&'t Utf8Path),
    /// The process will create the pidfile itself, need to wait for that event.
-    Expect(&'t Path),
+    Expect(&'t Utf8Path),
 }

 /// Start a background child process using the parameters given.
@@ -85,7 +86,7 @@ where
        .stdout(process_log_file)
        .stderr(same_file_for_stderr)
        .args(args);
-    let filled_cmd = fill_aws_secrets_vars(fill_rust_env_vars(background_command));
+    let filled_cmd = fill_remote_storage_secrets_vars(fill_rust_env_vars(background_command));
    filled_cmd.envs(envs);

    let pid_file_to_check = match initial_pid_file {
@@ -137,7 +138,11 @@ where
 }

 /// Stops the process, using the pid file given. Returns Ok also if the process is already not running.
-pub fn stop_process(immediate: bool, process_name: &str, pid_file: &Path) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+pub fn stop_process(
+    immediate: bool,
+    process_name: &str,
+    pid_file: &Utf8Path,
+) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
    let pid = match pid_file::read(pid_file)
        .with_context(|| format!("read pid_file {pid_file:?}"))?
    {
@@ -233,11 +238,13 @@ fn fill_rust_env_vars(cmd: &mut Command) -> &mut Command {
    filled_cmd
 }

-fn fill_aws_secrets_vars(mut cmd: &mut Command) -> &mut Command {
+fn fill_remote_storage_secrets_vars(mut cmd: &mut Command) -> &mut Command {
    for env_key in [
        "AWS_ACCESS_KEY_ID",
        "AWS_SECRET_ACCESS_KEY",
        "AWS_SESSION_TOKEN",
+        "AZURE_STORAGE_ACCOUNT",
+        "AZURE_STORAGE_ACCESS_KEY",
    ] {
        if let Ok(value) = std::env::var(env_key) {
            cmd = cmd.env(env_key, value);
@@ -252,10 +259,10 @@ fn fill_aws_secrets_vars(mut cmd: &mut Command) -> &mut Command {
 ///    will remain held until the cmd exits.
 fn pre_exec_create_pidfile<P>(cmd: &mut Command, path: P) -> &mut Command
 where
-    P: Into<PathBuf>,
+    P: Into<Utf8PathBuf>,
 {
-    let path: PathBuf = path.into();
-    // SAFETY
+    let path: Utf8PathBuf = path.into();
+    // SAFETY:
    // pre_exec is marked unsafe because it runs between fork and exec.
    // Why is that dangerous in various ways?
    // Long answer:  https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/issues/39575
@@ -311,7 +318,7 @@ where

 fn process_started<F>(
    pid: Pid,
-    pid_file_to_check: Option<&Path>,
+    pid_file_to_check: Option<&Utf8Path>,
    status_check: &F,
 ) -> anyhow::Result<bool>
 where
--- a/control_plane/src/bin/attachment_service.rs
+++ b/control_plane/src/bin/attachment_service.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,302 @@
+/// The attachment service mimics the aspects of the control plane API
+/// that are required for a pageserver to operate.
+///
+/// This enables running & testing pageservers without a full-blown
+/// deployment of the Neon cloud platform.
+///
+use anyhow::anyhow;
+use clap::Parser;
+use hex::FromHex;
+use hyper::StatusCode;
+use hyper::{Body, Request, Response};
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+use std::path::{Path, PathBuf};
+use std::{collections::HashMap, sync::Arc};
+use utils::http::endpoint::request_span;
+use utils::logging::{self, LogFormat};
+use utils::signals::{ShutdownSignals, Signal};
+
+use utils::{
+    http::{
+        endpoint::{self},
+        error::ApiError,
+        json::{json_request, json_response},
+        RequestExt, RouterBuilder,
+    },
+    id::{NodeId, TenantId},
+    tcp_listener,
+};
+
+use pageserver_api::control_api::{
+    ReAttachRequest, ReAttachResponse, ReAttachResponseTenant, ValidateRequest, ValidateResponse,
+    ValidateResponseTenant,
+};
+
+use control_plane::attachment_service::{AttachHookRequest, AttachHookResponse};
+
+#[derive(Parser)]
+#[command(author, version, about, long_about = None)]
+#[command(arg_required_else_help(true))]
+struct Cli {
+    /// Host and port to listen on, like `127.0.0.1:1234`
+    #[arg(short, long)]
+    listen: std::net::SocketAddr,
+
+    /// Path to the .json file to store state (will be created if it doesn't exist)
+    #[arg(short, long)]
+    path: PathBuf,
+}
+
+// The persistent state of each Tenant
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Clone)]
+struct TenantState {
+    // Currently attached pageserver
+    pageserver: Option<NodeId>,
+
+    // Latest generation number: next time we attach, increment this
+    // and use the incremented number when attaching
+    generation: u32,
+}
+
+fn to_hex_map<S, V>(input: &HashMap<TenantId, V>, serializer: S) -> Result<S::Ok, S::Error>
+where
+    S: serde::Serializer,
+    V: Clone + Serialize,
+{
+    let transformed = input.iter().map(|(k, v)| (hex::encode(k), v.clone()));
+
+    transformed
+        .collect::<HashMap<String, V>>()
+        .serialize(serializer)
+}
+
+fn from_hex_map<'de, D, V>(deserializer: D) -> Result<HashMap<TenantId, V>, D::Error>
+where
+    D: serde::de::Deserializer<'de>,
+    V: Deserialize<'de>,
+{
+    let hex_map = HashMap::<String, V>::deserialize(deserializer)?;
+    hex_map
+        .into_iter()
+        .map(|(k, v)| {
+            TenantId::from_hex(k)
+                .map(|k| (k, v))
+                .map_err(serde::de::Error::custom)
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+// Top level state available to all HTTP handlers
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize)]
+struct PersistentState {
+    #[serde(serialize_with = "to_hex_map", deserialize_with = "from_hex_map")]
+    tenants: HashMap<TenantId, TenantState>,
+
+    #[serde(skip)]
+    path: PathBuf,
+}
+
+impl PersistentState {
+    async fn save(&self) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+        let bytes = serde_json::to_vec(self)?;
+        tokio::fs::write(&self.path, &bytes).await?;
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn load(path: &Path) -> anyhow::Result<Self> {
+        let bytes = tokio::fs::read(path).await?;
+        let mut decoded = serde_json::from_slice::<Self>(&bytes)?;
+        decoded.path = path.to_owned();
+        Ok(decoded)
+    }
+
+    async fn load_or_new(path: &Path) -> Self {
+        match Self::load(path).await {
+            Ok(s) => {
+                tracing::info!("Loaded state file at {}", path.display());
+                s
+            }
+            Err(e)
+                if e.downcast_ref::<std::io::Error>()
+                    .map(|e| e.kind() == std::io::ErrorKind::NotFound)
+                    .unwrap_or(false) =>
+            {
+                tracing::info!("Will create state file at {}", path.display());
+                Self {
+                    tenants: HashMap::new(),
+                    path: path.to_owned(),
+                }
+            }
+            Err(e) => {
+                panic!("Failed to load state from '{}': {e:#} (maybe your .neon/ dir was written by an older version?)", path.display())
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// State available to HTTP request handlers
+#[derive(Clone)]
+struct State {
+    inner: Arc<tokio::sync::RwLock<PersistentState>>,
+}
+
+impl State {
+    fn new(persistent_state: PersistentState) -> State {
+        Self {
+            inner: Arc::new(tokio::sync::RwLock::new(persistent_state)),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[inline(always)]
+fn get_state(request: &Request<Body>) -> &State {
+    request
+        .data::<Arc<State>>()
+        .expect("unknown state type")
+        .as_ref()
+}
+
+/// Pageserver calls into this on startup, to learn which tenants it should attach
+async fn handle_re_attach(mut req: Request<Body>) -> Result<Response<Body>, ApiError> {
+    let reattach_req = json_request::<ReAttachRequest>(&mut req).await?;
+
+    let state = get_state(&req).inner.clone();
+    let mut locked = state.write().await;
+
+    let mut response = ReAttachResponse {
+        tenants: Vec::new(),
+    };
+    for (t, state) in &mut locked.tenants {
+        if state.pageserver == Some(reattach_req.node_id) {
+            state.generation += 1;
+            response.tenants.push(ReAttachResponseTenant {
+                id: *t,
+                gen: state.generation,
+            });
+        }
+    }
+
+    locked.save().await.map_err(ApiError::InternalServerError)?;
+
+    json_response(StatusCode::OK, response)
+}
+
+/// Pageserver calls into this before doing deletions, to confirm that it still
+/// holds the latest generation for the tenants with deletions enqueued
+async fn handle_validate(mut req: Request<Body>) -> Result<Response<Body>, ApiError> {
+    let validate_req = json_request::<ValidateRequest>(&mut req).await?;
+
+    let locked = get_state(&req).inner.read().await;
+
+    let mut response = ValidateResponse {
+        tenants: Vec::new(),
+    };
+
+    for req_tenant in validate_req.tenants {
+        if let Some(tenant_state) = locked.tenants.get(&req_tenant.id) {
+            let valid = tenant_state.generation == req_tenant.gen;
+            response.tenants.push(ValidateResponseTenant {
+                id: req_tenant.id,
+                valid,
+            });
+        }
+    }
+
+    json_response(StatusCode::OK, response)
+}
+/// Call into this before attaching a tenant to a pageserver, to acquire a generation number
+/// (in the real control plane this is unnecessary, because the same program is managing
+///  generation numbers and doing attachments).
+async fn handle_attach_hook(mut req: Request<Body>) -> Result<Response<Body>, ApiError> {
+    let attach_req = json_request::<AttachHookRequest>(&mut req).await?;
+
+    let state = get_state(&req).inner.clone();
+    let mut locked = state.write().await;
+
+    let tenant_state = locked
+        .tenants
+        .entry(attach_req.tenant_id)
+        .or_insert_with(|| TenantState {
+            pageserver: attach_req.node_id,
+            generation: 0,
+        });
+
+    if let Some(attaching_pageserver) = attach_req.node_id.as_ref() {
+        tenant_state.generation += 1;
+        tracing::info!(
+            tenant_id = %attach_req.tenant_id,
+            ps_id = %attaching_pageserver,
+            generation = %tenant_state.generation,
+            "issuing",
+        );
+    } else if let Some(ps_id) = tenant_state.pageserver {
+        tracing::info!(
+            tenant_id = %attach_req.tenant_id,
+            %ps_id,
+            generation = %tenant_state.generation,
+            "dropping",
+        );
+    } else {
+        tracing::info!(
+            tenant_id = %attach_req.tenant_id,
+            "no-op: tenant already has no pageserver");
+    }
+    tenant_state.pageserver = attach_req.node_id;
+    let generation = tenant_state.generation;
+
+    locked.save().await.map_err(ApiError::InternalServerError)?;
+
+    json_response(
+        StatusCode::OK,
+        AttachHookResponse {
+            gen: attach_req.node_id.map(|_| generation),
+        },
+    )
+}
+
+fn make_router(persistent_state: PersistentState) -> RouterBuilder<hyper::Body, ApiError> {
+    endpoint::make_router()
+        .data(Arc::new(State::new(persistent_state)))
+        .post("/re-attach", |r| request_span(r, handle_re_attach))
+        .post("/validate", |r| request_span(r, handle_validate))
+        .post("/attach-hook", |r| request_span(r, handle_attach_hook))
+}
+
+#[tokio::main]
+async fn main() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+    logging::init(
+        LogFormat::Plain,
+        logging::TracingErrorLayerEnablement::Disabled,
+    )?;
+
+    let args = Cli::parse();
+    tracing::info!(
+        "Starting, state at {}, listening on {}",
+        args.path.to_string_lossy(),
+        args.listen
+    );
+
+    let persistent_state = PersistentState::load_or_new(&args.path).await;
+
+    let http_listener = tcp_listener::bind(args.listen)?;
+    let router = make_router(persistent_state)
+        .build()
+        .map_err(|err| anyhow!(err))?;
+    let service = utils::http::RouterService::new(router).unwrap();
+    let server = hyper::Server::from_tcp(http_listener)?.serve(service);
+
+    tracing::info!("Serving on {0}", args.listen);
+
+    tokio::task::spawn(server);
+
+    ShutdownSignals::handle(|signal| match signal {
+        Signal::Interrupt | Signal::Terminate | Signal::Quit => {
+            tracing::info!("Got {}. Terminating", signal.name());
+            // We're just a test helper: no graceful shutdown.
+            std::process::exit(0);
+        }
+    })?;
+
+    Ok(())
+}
--- a/control_plane/src/bin/neon_local.rs
+++ b/control_plane/src/bin/neon_local.rs
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@
 use anyhow::{anyhow, bail, Context, Result};
 use clap::{value_parser, Arg, ArgAction, ArgMatches, Command};
 use compute_api::spec::ComputeMode;
+use control_plane::attachment_service::AttachmentService;
 use control_plane::endpoint::ComputeControlPlane;
 use control_plane::local_env::LocalEnv;
 use control_plane::pageserver::PageServerNode;
@@ -43,14 +44,18 @@ project_git_version!(GIT_VERSION);

 const DEFAULT_PG_VERSION: &str = "15";

+const DEFAULT_PAGESERVER_CONTROL_PLANE_API: &str = "http://127.0.0.1:1234/";
+
 fn default_conf() -> String {
    format!(
        r#"
 # Default built-in configuration, defined in main.rs
+control_plane_api = '{DEFAULT_PAGESERVER_CONTROL_PLANE_API}'
+
 [broker]
 listen_addr = '{DEFAULT_BROKER_ADDR}'

-[pageserver]
+[[pageservers]]
 id = {DEFAULT_PAGESERVER_ID}
 listen_pg_addr = '{DEFAULT_PAGESERVER_PG_ADDR}'
 listen_http_addr = '{DEFAULT_PAGESERVER_HTTP_ADDR}'
@@ -61,6 +66,7 @@ http_auth_type = '{trust_auth}'
 id = {DEFAULT_SAFEKEEPER_ID}
 pg_port = {DEFAULT_SAFEKEEPER_PG_PORT}
 http_port = {DEFAULT_SAFEKEEPER_HTTP_PORT}
+
 "#,
        trust_auth = AuthType::Trust,
    )
@@ -107,8 +113,10 @@ fn main() -> Result<()> {
            "start" => handle_start_all(sub_args, &env),
            "stop" => handle_stop_all(sub_args, &env),
            "pageserver" => handle_pageserver(sub_args, &env),
+            "attachment_service" => handle_attachment_service(sub_args, &env),
            "safekeeper" => handle_safekeeper(sub_args, &env),
            "endpoint" => handle_endpoint(sub_args, &env),
+            "mappings" => handle_mappings(sub_args, &mut env),
            "pg" => bail!("'pg' subcommand has been renamed to 'endpoint'"),
            _ => bail!("unexpected subcommand {sub_name}"),
        };
@@ -252,7 +260,7 @@ fn get_timeline_infos(
    env: &local_env::LocalEnv,
    tenant_id: &TenantId,
 ) -> Result<HashMap<TimelineId, TimelineInfo>> {
-    Ok(PageServerNode::from_env(env)
+    Ok(get_default_pageserver(env)
        .timeline_list(tenant_id)?
        .into_iter()
        .map(|timeline_info| (timeline_info.timeline_id, timeline_info))
@@ -313,17 +321,30 @@ fn handle_init(init_match: &ArgMatches) -> anyhow::Result<LocalEnv> {
        .context("Failed to initialize neon repository")?;

    // Initialize pageserver, create initial tenant and timeline.
-    let pageserver = PageServerNode::from_env(&env);
-    pageserver
-        .initialize(&pageserver_config_overrides(init_match))
-        .unwrap_or_else(|e| {
-            eprintln!("pageserver init failed: {e:?}");
-            exit(1);
-        });
+    for ps_conf in &env.pageservers {
+        PageServerNode::from_env(&env, ps_conf)
+            .initialize(&pageserver_config_overrides(init_match))
+            .unwrap_or_else(|e| {
+                eprintln!("pageserver init failed: {e:?}");
+                exit(1);
+            });
+    }

    Ok(env)
 }

+/// The default pageserver is the one where CLI tenant/timeline operations are sent by default.
+/// For typical interactive use, one would just run with a single pageserver.  Scenarios with
+/// tenant/timeline placement across multiple pageservers are managed by python test code rather
+/// than this CLI.
+fn get_default_pageserver(env: &local_env::LocalEnv) -> PageServerNode {
+    let ps_conf = env
+        .pageservers
+        .first()
+        .expect("Config is validated to contain at least one pageserver");
+    PageServerNode::from_env(env, ps_conf)
+}
+
 fn pageserver_config_overrides(init_match: &ArgMatches) -> Vec<&str> {
    init_match
        .get_many::<String>("pageserver-config-override")
@@ -334,7 +355,7 @@ fn pageserver_config_overrides(init_match: &ArgMatches) -> Vec<&str> {
 }

 fn handle_tenant(tenant_match: &ArgMatches, env: &mut local_env::LocalEnv) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
-    let pageserver = PageServerNode::from_env(env);
+    let pageserver = get_default_pageserver(env);
    match tenant_match.subcommand() {
        Some(("list", _)) => {
            for t in pageserver.tenant_list()? {
@@ -342,13 +363,25 @@ fn handle_tenant(tenant_match: &ArgMatches, env: &mut local_env::LocalEnv) -> an
            }
        }
        Some(("create", create_match)) => {
-            let initial_tenant_id = parse_tenant_id(create_match)?;
            let tenant_conf: HashMap<_, _> = create_match
                .get_many::<String>("config")
                .map(|vals| vals.flat_map(|c| c.split_once(':')).collect())
                .unwrap_or_default();
-            let new_tenant_id = pageserver.tenant_create(initial_tenant_id, tenant_conf)?;
-            println!("tenant {new_tenant_id} successfully created on the pageserver");
+
+            // If tenant ID was not specified, generate one
+            let tenant_id = parse_tenant_id(create_match)?.unwrap_or_else(TenantId::generate);
+
+            let generation = if env.control_plane_api.is_some() {
+                // We must register the tenant with the attachment service, so
+                // that when the pageserver restarts, it will be re-attached.
+                let attachment_service = AttachmentService::from_env(env);
+                attachment_service.attach_hook(tenant_id, pageserver.conf.id)?
+            } else {
+                None
+            };
+
+            pageserver.tenant_create(tenant_id, generation, tenant_conf)?;
+            println!("tenant {tenant_id} successfully created on the pageserver");

            // Create an initial timeline for the new tenant
            let new_timeline_id = parse_timeline_id(create_match)?;
@@ -358,7 +391,7 @@ fn handle_tenant(tenant_match: &ArgMatches, env: &mut local_env::LocalEnv) -> an
                .context("Failed to parse postgres version from the argument string")?;

            let timeline_info = pageserver.timeline_create(
-                new_tenant_id,
+                tenant_id,
                new_timeline_id,
                None,
                None,
@@ -369,17 +402,17 @@ fn handle_tenant(tenant_match: &ArgMatches, env: &mut local_env::LocalEnv) -> an

            env.register_branch_mapping(
                DEFAULT_BRANCH_NAME.to_string(),
-                new_tenant_id,
+                tenant_id,
                new_timeline_id,
            )?;

            println!(
-                "Created an initial timeline '{new_timeline_id}' at Lsn {last_record_lsn} for tenant: {new_tenant_id}",
+                "Created an initial timeline '{new_timeline_id}' at Lsn {last_record_lsn} for tenant: {tenant_id}",
            );

            if create_match.get_flag("set-default") {
-                println!("Setting tenant {new_tenant_id} as a default one");
-                env.default_tenant_id = Some(new_tenant_id);
+                println!("Setting tenant {tenant_id} as a default one");
+                env.default_tenant_id = Some(tenant_id);
            }
        }
        Some(("set-default", set_default_match)) => {
@@ -407,7 +440,7 @@ fn handle_tenant(tenant_match: &ArgMatches, env: &mut local_env::LocalEnv) -> an
 }

 fn handle_timeline(timeline_match: &ArgMatches, env: &mut local_env::LocalEnv) -> Result<()> {
-    let pageserver = PageServerNode::from_env(env);
+    let pageserver = get_default_pageserver(env);

    match timeline_match.subcommand() {
        Some(("list", list_match)) => {
@@ -484,6 +517,7 @@ fn handle_timeline(timeline_match: &ArgMatches, env: &mut local_env::LocalEnv) -
                None,
                pg_version,
                ComputeMode::Primary,
+                DEFAULT_PAGESERVER_ID,
            )?;
            println!("Done");
        }
@@ -537,7 +571,6 @@ fn handle_endpoint(ep_match: &ArgMatches, env: &local_env::LocalEnv) -> Result<(
        Some(ep_subcommand_data) => ep_subcommand_data,
        None => bail!("no endpoint subcommand provided"),
    };
-
    let mut cplane = ComputeControlPlane::load(env.clone())?;

    // All subcommands take an optional --tenant-id option
@@ -634,6 +667,13 @@ fn handle_endpoint(ep_match: &ArgMatches, env: &local_env::LocalEnv) -> Result<(
                .copied()
                .unwrap_or(false);

+            let pageserver_id =
+                if let Some(id_str) = sub_args.get_one::<String>("endpoint-pageserver-id") {
+                    NodeId(id_str.parse().context("while parsing pageserver id")?)
+                } else {
+                    DEFAULT_PAGESERVER_ID
+                };
+
            let mode = match (lsn, hot_standby) {
                (Some(lsn), false) => ComputeMode::Static(lsn),
                (None, true) => ComputeMode::Replica,
@@ -649,6 +689,7 @@ fn handle_endpoint(ep_match: &ArgMatches, env: &local_env::LocalEnv) -> Result<(
                http_port,
                pg_version,
                mode,
+                pageserver_id,
            )?;
        }
        "start" => {
@@ -658,6 +699,13 @@ fn handle_endpoint(ep_match: &ArgMatches, env: &local_env::LocalEnv) -> Result<(
                .get_one::<String>("endpoint_id")
                .ok_or_else(|| anyhow!("No endpoint ID was provided to start"))?;

+            let pageserver_id =
+                if let Some(id_str) = sub_args.get_one::<String>("endpoint-pageserver-id") {
+                    NodeId(id_str.parse().context("while parsing pageserver id")?)
+                } else {
+                    DEFAULT_PAGESERVER_ID
+                };
+
            let remote_ext_config = sub_args.get_one::<String>("remote-ext-config");

            // If --safekeepers argument is given, use only the listed safekeeper nodes.
@@ -677,7 +725,8 @@ fn handle_endpoint(ep_match: &ArgMatches, env: &local_env::LocalEnv) -> Result<(

            let endpoint = cplane.endpoints.get(endpoint_id.as_str());

-            let auth_token = if matches!(env.pageserver.pg_auth_type, AuthType::NeonJWT) {
+            let ps_conf = env.get_pageserver_conf(pageserver_id)?;
+            let auth_token = if matches!(ps_conf.pg_auth_type, AuthType::NeonJWT) {
                let claims = Claims::new(Some(tenant_id), Scope::Tenant);

                Some(env.generate_auth_token(&claims)?)
@@ -744,10 +793,29 @@ fn handle_endpoint(ep_match: &ArgMatches, env: &local_env::LocalEnv) -> Result<(
                    http_port,
                    pg_version,
                    mode,
+                    pageserver_id,
                )?;
                ep.start(&auth_token, safekeepers, remote_ext_config)?;
            }
        }
+        "reconfigure" => {
+            let endpoint_id = sub_args
+                .get_one::<String>("endpoint_id")
+                .ok_or_else(|| anyhow!("No endpoint ID provided to reconfigure"))?;
+            let endpoint = cplane
+                .endpoints
+                .get(endpoint_id.as_str())
+                .with_context(|| format!("postgres endpoint {endpoint_id} is not found"))?;
+            let pageserver_id =
+                if let Some(id_str) = sub_args.get_one::<String>("endpoint-pageserver-id") {
+                    Some(NodeId(
+                        id_str.parse().context("while parsing pageserver id")?,
+                    ))
+                } else {
+                    None
+                };
+            endpoint.reconfigure(pageserver_id)?;
+        }
        "stop" => {
            let endpoint_id = sub_args
                .get_one::<String>("endpoint_id")
@@ -767,52 +835,127 @@ fn handle_endpoint(ep_match: &ArgMatches, env: &local_env::LocalEnv) -> Result<(
    Ok(())
 }

+fn handle_mappings(sub_match: &ArgMatches, env: &mut local_env::LocalEnv) -> Result<()> {
+    let (sub_name, sub_args) = match sub_match.subcommand() {
+        Some(ep_subcommand_data) => ep_subcommand_data,
+        None => bail!("no mappings subcommand provided"),
+    };
+
+    match sub_name {
+        "map" => {
+            let branch_name = sub_args
+                .get_one::<String>("branch-name")
+                .expect("branch-name argument missing");
+
+            let tenant_id = sub_args
+                .get_one::<String>("tenant-id")
+                .map(|x| TenantId::from_str(x))
+                .expect("tenant-id argument missing")
+                .expect("malformed tenant-id arg");
+
+            let timeline_id = sub_args
+                .get_one::<String>("timeline-id")
+                .map(|x| TimelineId::from_str(x))
+                .expect("timeline-id argument missing")
+                .expect("malformed timeline-id arg");
+
+            env.register_branch_mapping(branch_name.to_owned(), tenant_id, timeline_id)?;
+
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        other => unimplemented!("mappings subcommand {other}"),
+    }
+}
+
 fn handle_pageserver(sub_match: &ArgMatches, env: &local_env::LocalEnv) -> Result<()> {
-    let pageserver = PageServerNode::from_env(env);
+    fn get_pageserver(env: &local_env::LocalEnv, args: &ArgMatches) -> Result<PageServerNode> {
+        let node_id = if let Some(id_str) = args.get_one::<String>("pageserver-id") {
+            NodeId(id_str.parse().context("while parsing pageserver id")?)
+        } else {
+            DEFAULT_PAGESERVER_ID
+        };
+
+        Ok(PageServerNode::from_env(
+            env,
+            env.get_pageserver_conf(node_id)?,
+        ))
+    }

    match sub_match.subcommand() {
-        Some(("start", start_match)) => {
-            if let Err(e) = pageserver.start(&pageserver_config_overrides(start_match)) {
+        Some(("start", subcommand_args)) => {
+            if let Err(e) = get_pageserver(env, subcommand_args)?
+                .start(&pageserver_config_overrides(subcommand_args))
+            {
                eprintln!("pageserver start failed: {e}");
                exit(1);
            }
        }

+        Some(("stop", subcommand_args)) => {
+            let immediate = subcommand_args
+                .get_one::<String>("stop-mode")
+                .map(|s| s.as_str())
+                == Some("immediate");
+
+            if let Err(e) = get_pageserver(env, subcommand_args)?.stop(immediate) {
+                eprintln!("pageserver stop failed: {}", e);
+                exit(1);
+            }
+        }
+
+        Some(("restart", subcommand_args)) => {
+            let pageserver = get_pageserver(env, subcommand_args)?;
+            //TODO what shutdown strategy should we use here?
+            if let Err(e) = pageserver.stop(false) {
+                eprintln!("pageserver stop failed: {}", e);
+                exit(1);
+            }
+
+            if let Err(e) = pageserver.start(&pageserver_config_overrides(subcommand_args)) {
+                eprintln!("pageserver start failed: {e}");
+                exit(1);
+            }
+        }
+
+        Some(("status", subcommand_args)) => {
+            match get_pageserver(env, subcommand_args)?.check_status() {
+                Ok(_) => println!("Page server is up and running"),
+                Err(err) => {
+                    eprintln!("Page server is not available: {}", err);
+                    exit(1);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        Some((sub_name, _)) => bail!("Unexpected pageserver subcommand '{}'", sub_name),
+        None => bail!("no pageserver subcommand provided"),
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn handle_attachment_service(sub_match: &ArgMatches, env: &local_env::LocalEnv) -> Result<()> {
+    let svc = AttachmentService::from_env(env);
+    match sub_match.subcommand() {
+        Some(("start", _start_match)) => {
+            if let Err(e) = svc.start() {
+                eprintln!("start failed: {e}");
+                exit(1);
+            }
+        }
+
        Some(("stop", stop_match)) => {
            let immediate = stop_match
                .get_one::<String>("stop-mode")
                .map(|s| s.as_str())
                == Some("immediate");

-            if let Err(e) = pageserver.stop(immediate) {
-                eprintln!("pageserver stop failed: {}", e);
+            if let Err(e) = svc.stop(immediate) {
+                eprintln!("stop failed: {}", e);
                exit(1);
            }
        }
-
-        Some(("restart", restart_match)) => {
-            //TODO what shutdown strategy should we use here?
-            if let Err(e) = pageserver.stop(false) {
-                eprintln!("pageserver stop failed: {}", e);
-                exit(1);
-            }
-
-            if let Err(e) = pageserver.start(&pageserver_config_overrides(restart_match)) {
-                eprintln!("pageserver start failed: {e}");
-                exit(1);
-            }
-        }
-
-        Some(("status", _)) => match PageServerNode::from_env(env).check_status() {
-            Ok(_) => println!("Page server is up and running"),
-            Err(err) => {
-                eprintln!("Page server is not available: {}", err);
-                exit(1);
-            }
-        },
-
-        Some((sub_name, _)) => bail!("Unexpected pageserver subcommand '{}'", sub_name),
-        None => bail!("no pageserver subcommand provided"),
+        Some((sub_name, _)) => bail!("Unexpected attachment_service subcommand '{}'", sub_name),
+        None => bail!("no attachment_service subcommand provided"),
    }
    Ok(())
 }
@@ -897,11 +1040,23 @@ fn handle_start_all(sub_match: &ArgMatches, env: &local_env::LocalEnv) -> anyhow

    broker::start_broker_process(env)?;

-    let pageserver = PageServerNode::from_env(env);
-    if let Err(e) = pageserver.start(&pageserver_config_overrides(sub_match)) {
-        eprintln!("pageserver {} start failed: {:#}", env.pageserver.id, e);
-        try_stop_all(env, true);
-        exit(1);
+    // Only start the attachment service if the pageserver is configured to need it
+    if env.control_plane_api.is_some() {
+        let attachment_service = AttachmentService::from_env(env);
+        if let Err(e) = attachment_service.start() {
+            eprintln!("attachment_service start failed: {:#}", e);
+            try_stop_all(env, true);
+            exit(1);
+        }
+    }
+
+    for ps_conf in &env.pageservers {
+        let pageserver = PageServerNode::from_env(env, ps_conf);
+        if let Err(e) = pageserver.start(&pageserver_config_overrides(sub_match)) {
+            eprintln!("pageserver {} start failed: {:#}", ps_conf.id, e);
+            try_stop_all(env, true);
+            exit(1);
+        }
    }

    for node in env.safekeepers.iter() {
@@ -925,8 +1080,6 @@ fn handle_stop_all(sub_match: &ArgMatches, env: &local_env::LocalEnv) -> Result<
 }

 fn try_stop_all(env: &local_env::LocalEnv, immediate: bool) {
-    let pageserver = PageServerNode::from_env(env);
-
    // Stop all endpoints
    match ComputeControlPlane::load(env.clone()) {
        Ok(cplane) => {
@@ -941,8 +1094,11 @@ fn try_stop_all(env: &local_env::LocalEnv, immediate: bool) {
        }
    }

-    if let Err(e) = pageserver.stop(immediate) {
-        eprintln!("pageserver {} stop failed: {:#}", env.pageserver.id, e);
+    for ps_conf in &env.pageservers {
+        let pageserver = PageServerNode::from_env(env, ps_conf);
+        if let Err(e) = pageserver.stop(immediate) {
+            eprintln!("pageserver {} stop failed: {:#}", ps_conf.id, e);
+        }
    }

    for node in env.safekeepers.iter() {
@@ -955,6 +1111,13 @@ fn try_stop_all(env: &local_env::LocalEnv, immediate: bool) {
    if let Err(e) = broker::stop_broker_process(env) {
        eprintln!("neon broker stop failed: {e:#}");
    }
+
+    if env.control_plane_api.is_some() {
+        let attachment_service = AttachmentService::from_env(env);
+        if let Err(e) = attachment_service.stop(immediate) {
+            eprintln!("attachment service stop failed: {e:#}");
+        }
+    }
 }

 fn cli() -> Command {
@@ -969,6 +1132,17 @@ fn cli() -> Command {

    let safekeeper_id_arg = Arg::new("id").help("safekeeper id").required(false);

+    // --id, when using a pageserver command
+    let pageserver_id_arg = Arg::new("pageserver-id")
+        .long("id")
+        .global(true)
+        .help("pageserver id")
+        .required(false);
+    // --pageserver-id when using a non-pageserver command
+    let endpoint_pageserver_id_arg = Arg::new("endpoint-pageserver-id")
+        .long("pageserver-id")
+        .required(false);
+
    let safekeeper_extra_opt_arg = Arg::new("safekeeper-extra-opt")
        .short('e')
        .long("safekeeper-extra-opt")
@@ -1132,11 +1306,28 @@ fn cli() -> Command {
            Command::new("pageserver")
                .arg_required_else_help(true)
                .about("Manage pageserver")
+                .arg(pageserver_id_arg)
                .subcommand(Command::new("status"))
+                .subcommand(Command::new("start")
+                    .about("Start local pageserver")
+                    .arg(pageserver_config_args.clone())
+                )
+                .subcommand(Command::new("stop")
+                    .about("Stop local pageserver")
+                    .arg(stop_mode_arg.clone())
+                )
+                .subcommand(Command::new("restart")
+                    .about("Restart local pageserver")
+                    .arg(pageserver_config_args.clone())
+                )
+        )
+        .subcommand(
+            Command::new("attachment_service")
+                .arg_required_else_help(true)
+                .about("Manage attachment_service")
                .subcommand(Command::new("start").about("Start local pageserver").arg(pageserver_config_args.clone()))
                .subcommand(Command::new("stop").about("Stop local pageserver")
                            .arg(stop_mode_arg.clone()))
-                .subcommand(Command::new("restart").about("Restart local pageserver").arg(pageserver_config_args.clone()))
        )
        .subcommand(
            Command::new("safekeeper")
@@ -1172,6 +1363,7 @@ fn cli() -> Command {
                    .arg(lsn_arg.clone())
                    .arg(pg_port_arg.clone())
                    .arg(http_port_arg.clone())
+                    .arg(endpoint_pageserver_id_arg.clone())
                    .arg(
                        Arg::new("config-only")
                            .help("Don't do basebackup, create endpoint directory with only config files")
@@ -1184,20 +1376,27 @@ fn cli() -> Command {
                    .about("Start postgres.\n If the endpoint doesn't exist yet, it is created.")
                    .arg(endpoint_id_arg.clone())
                    .arg(tenant_id_arg.clone())
-                    .arg(branch_name_arg)
-                    .arg(timeline_id_arg)
+                    .arg(branch_name_arg.clone())
+                    .arg(timeline_id_arg.clone())
                    .arg(lsn_arg)
                    .arg(pg_port_arg)
                    .arg(http_port_arg)
+                    .arg(endpoint_pageserver_id_arg.clone())
                    .arg(pg_version_arg)
                    .arg(hot_standby_arg)
                    .arg(safekeepers_arg)
                    .arg(remote_ext_config_args)
                )
+                .subcommand(Command::new("reconfigure")
+                            .about("Reconfigure the endpoint")
+                            .arg(endpoint_pageserver_id_arg)
+                            .arg(endpoint_id_arg.clone())
+                            .arg(tenant_id_arg.clone())
+                )
                .subcommand(
                    Command::new("stop")
                    .arg(endpoint_id_arg)
-                    .arg(tenant_id_arg)
+                    .arg(tenant_id_arg.clone())
                    .arg(
                        Arg::new("destroy")
                            .help("Also delete data directory (now optional, should be default in future)")
@@ -1208,6 +1407,18 @@ fn cli() -> Command {
                )

        )
+        .subcommand(
+            Command::new("mappings")
+                .arg_required_else_help(true)
+                .about("Manage neon_local branch name mappings")
+                .subcommand(
+                    Command::new("map")
+                        .about("Create new mapping which cannot exist already")
+                        .arg(branch_name_arg.clone())
+                        .arg(tenant_id_arg.clone())
+                        .arg(timeline_id_arg.clone())
+                )
+        )
        // Obsolete old name for 'endpoint'. We now just print an error if it's used.
        .subcommand(
            Command::new("pg")
--- a/control_plane/src/broker.rs
+++ b/control_plane/src/broker.rs
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@
 //! ```
 use anyhow::Context;

-use std::path::PathBuf;
+use camino::Utf8PathBuf;

 use crate::{background_process, local_env};

@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ pub fn start_broker_process(env: &local_env::LocalEnv) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
        || {
            let url = broker.client_url();
            let status_url = url.join("status").with_context(|| {
-                format!("Failed to append /status path to broker endpoint {url}",)
+                format!("Failed to append /status path to broker endpoint {url}")
            })?;
            let request = client
                .get(status_url)
@@ -50,6 +50,7 @@ pub fn stop_broker_process(env: &local_env::LocalEnv) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
    background_process::stop_process(true, "storage_broker", &storage_broker_pid_file_path(env))
 }

-fn storage_broker_pid_file_path(env: &local_env::LocalEnv) -> PathBuf {
-    env.base_data_dir.join("storage_broker.pid")
+fn storage_broker_pid_file_path(env: &local_env::LocalEnv) -> Utf8PathBuf {
+    Utf8PathBuf::from_path_buf(env.base_data_dir.join("storage_broker.pid"))
+        .expect("non-Unicode path")
 }
--- a/control_plane/src/endpoint.rs
+++ b/control_plane/src/endpoint.rs
@@ -46,7 +46,6 @@ use std::time::Duration;

 use anyhow::{anyhow, bail, Context, Result};
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use serde_with::{serde_as, DisplayFromStr};
 use utils::id::{NodeId, TenantId, TimelineId};

 use crate::local_env::LocalEnv;
@@ -57,19 +56,17 @@ use compute_api::responses::{ComputeState, ComputeStatus};
 use compute_api::spec::{Cluster, ComputeMode, ComputeSpec};

 // contents of a endpoint.json file
-#[serde_as]
 #[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Debug)]
 pub struct EndpointConf {
    endpoint_id: String,
-    #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
    tenant_id: TenantId,
-    #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
    timeline_id: TimelineId,
    mode: ComputeMode,
    pg_port: u16,
    http_port: u16,
    pg_version: u32,
    skip_pg_catalog_updates: bool,
+    pageserver_id: NodeId,
 }

 //
@@ -82,19 +79,16 @@ pub struct ComputeControlPlane {
    pub endpoints: BTreeMap<String, Arc<Endpoint>>,

    env: LocalEnv,
-    pageserver: Arc<PageServerNode>,
 }

 impl ComputeControlPlane {
    // Load current endpoints from the endpoints/ subdirectories
    pub fn load(env: LocalEnv) -> Result<ComputeControlPlane> {
-        let pageserver = Arc::new(PageServerNode::from_env(&env));
-
        let mut endpoints = BTreeMap::default();
        for endpoint_dir in std::fs::read_dir(env.endpoints_path())
            .with_context(|| format!("failed to list {}", env.endpoints_path().display()))?
        {
-            let ep = Endpoint::from_dir_entry(endpoint_dir?, &env, &pageserver)?;
+            let ep = Endpoint::from_dir_entry(endpoint_dir?, &env)?;
            endpoints.insert(ep.endpoint_id.clone(), Arc::new(ep));
        }

@@ -102,7 +96,6 @@ impl ComputeControlPlane {
            base_port: 55431,
            endpoints,
            env,
-            pageserver,
        })
    }

@@ -125,20 +118,29 @@ impl ComputeControlPlane {
        http_port: Option<u16>,
        pg_version: u32,
        mode: ComputeMode,
+        pageserver_id: NodeId,
    ) -> Result<Arc<Endpoint>> {
        let pg_port = pg_port.unwrap_or_else(|| self.get_port());
        let http_port = http_port.unwrap_or_else(|| self.get_port() + 1);
+        let pageserver =
+            PageServerNode::from_env(&self.env, self.env.get_pageserver_conf(pageserver_id)?);
        let ep = Arc::new(Endpoint {
            endpoint_id: endpoint_id.to_owned(),
            pg_address: SocketAddr::new("127.0.0.1".parse().unwrap(), pg_port),
            http_address: SocketAddr::new("127.0.0.1".parse().unwrap(), http_port),
            env: self.env.clone(),
-            pageserver: Arc::clone(&self.pageserver),
+            pageserver,
            timeline_id,
            mode,
            tenant_id,
            pg_version,
-            skip_pg_catalog_updates: false,
+            // We don't setup roles and databases in the spec locally, so we don't need to
+            // do catalog updates. Catalog updates also include check availability
+            // data creation. Yet, we have tests that check that size and db dump
+            // before and after start are the same. So, skip catalog updates,
+            // with this we basically test a case of waking up an idle compute, where
+            // we also skip catalog updates in the cloud.
+            skip_pg_catalog_updates: true,
        });

        ep.create_endpoint_dir()?;
@@ -152,7 +154,8 @@ impl ComputeControlPlane {
                http_port,
                pg_port,
                pg_version,
-                skip_pg_catalog_updates: false,
+                skip_pg_catalog_updates: true,
+                pageserver_id,
            })?,
        )?;
        std::fs::write(
@@ -187,18 +190,14 @@ pub struct Endpoint {
    // These are not part of the endpoint as such, but the environment
    // the endpoint runs in.
    pub env: LocalEnv,
-    pageserver: Arc<PageServerNode>,
+    pageserver: PageServerNode,

    // Optimizations
    skip_pg_catalog_updates: bool,
 }

 impl Endpoint {
-    fn from_dir_entry(
-        entry: std::fs::DirEntry,
-        env: &LocalEnv,
-        pageserver: &Arc<PageServerNode>,
-    ) -> Result<Endpoint> {
+    fn from_dir_entry(entry: std::fs::DirEntry, env: &LocalEnv) -> Result<Endpoint> {
        if !entry.file_type()?.is_dir() {
            anyhow::bail!(
                "Endpoint::from_dir_entry failed: '{}' is not a directory",
@@ -214,12 +213,15 @@ impl Endpoint {
        let conf: EndpointConf =
            serde_json::from_slice(&std::fs::read(entry.path().join("endpoint.json"))?)?;

+        let pageserver =
+            PageServerNode::from_env(env, env.get_pageserver_conf(conf.pageserver_id)?);
+
        Ok(Endpoint {
            pg_address: SocketAddr::new("127.0.0.1".parse().unwrap(), conf.pg_port),
            http_address: SocketAddr::new("127.0.0.1".parse().unwrap(), conf.http_port),
            endpoint_id,
            env: env.clone(),
-            pageserver: Arc::clone(pageserver),
+            pageserver,
            timeline_id: conf.timeline_id,
            mode: conf.mode,
            tenant_id: conf.tenant_id,
@@ -247,7 +249,7 @@ impl Endpoint {
        conf.append("shared_buffers", "1MB");
        conf.append("fsync", "off");
        conf.append("max_connections", "100");
-        conf.append("wal_level", "replica");
+        conf.append("wal_level", "logical");
        // wal_sender_timeout is the maximum time to wait for WAL replication.
        // It also defines how often the walreciever will send a feedback message to the wal sender.
        conf.append("wal_sender_timeout", "5s");
@@ -408,18 +410,34 @@ impl Endpoint {
            );
        }

-        // Also wait for the compute_ctl process to die. It might have some cleanup
-        // work to do after postgres stops, like syncing safekeepers, etc.
-        //
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn wait_for_compute_ctl_to_exit(&self) -> Result<()> {
        // TODO use background_process::stop_process instead
        let pidfile_path = self.endpoint_path().join("compute_ctl.pid");
        let pid: u32 = std::fs::read_to_string(pidfile_path)?.parse()?;
        let pid = nix::unistd::Pid::from_raw(pid as i32);
        crate::background_process::wait_until_stopped("compute_ctl", pid)?;
-
        Ok(())
    }

+    fn read_postgresql_conf(&self) -> Result<String> {
+        // Slurp the endpoints/<endpoint id>/postgresql.conf file into
+        // memory. We will include it in the spec file that we pass to
+        // `compute_ctl`, and `compute_ctl` will write it to the postgresql.conf
+        // in the data directory.
+        let postgresql_conf_path = self.endpoint_path().join("postgresql.conf");
+        match std::fs::read(&postgresql_conf_path) {
+            Ok(content) => Ok(String::from_utf8(content)?),
+            Err(e) if e.kind() == std::io::ErrorKind::NotFound => Ok("".to_string()),
+            Err(e) => Err(anyhow::Error::new(e).context(format!(
+                "failed to read config file in {}",
+                postgresql_conf_path.to_str().unwrap()
+            ))),
+        }
+    }
+
    pub fn start(
        &self,
        auth_token: &Option<String>,
@@ -430,21 +448,7 @@ impl Endpoint {
            anyhow::bail!("The endpoint is already running");
        }

-        // Slurp the endpoints/<endpoint id>/postgresql.conf file into
-        // memory. We will include it in the spec file that we pass to
-        // `compute_ctl`, and `compute_ctl` will write it to the postgresql.conf
-        // in the data directory.
-        let postgresql_conf_path = self.endpoint_path().join("postgresql.conf");
-        let postgresql_conf = match std::fs::read(&postgresql_conf_path) {
-            Ok(content) => String::from_utf8(content)?,
-            Err(e) if e.kind() == std::io::ErrorKind::NotFound => "".to_string(),
-            Err(e) => {
-                return Err(anyhow::Error::new(e).context(format!(
-                    "failed to read config file in {}",
-                    postgresql_conf_path.to_str().unwrap()
-                )))
-            }
-        };
+        let postgresql_conf = self.read_postgresql_conf()?;

        // We always start the compute node from scratch, so if the Postgres
        // data dir exists from a previous launch, remove it first.
@@ -615,6 +619,61 @@ impl Endpoint {
        }
    }

+    pub fn reconfigure(&self, pageserver_id: Option<NodeId>) -> Result<()> {
+        let mut spec: ComputeSpec = {
+            let spec_path = self.endpoint_path().join("spec.json");
+            let file = std::fs::File::open(spec_path)?;
+            serde_json::from_reader(file)?
+        };
+
+        let postgresql_conf = self.read_postgresql_conf()?;
+        spec.cluster.postgresql_conf = Some(postgresql_conf);
+
+        if let Some(pageserver_id) = pageserver_id {
+            let endpoint_config_path = self.endpoint_path().join("endpoint.json");
+            let mut endpoint_conf: EndpointConf = {
+                let file = std::fs::File::open(&endpoint_config_path)?;
+                serde_json::from_reader(file)?
+            };
+            endpoint_conf.pageserver_id = pageserver_id;
+            std::fs::write(
+                endpoint_config_path,
+                serde_json::to_string_pretty(&endpoint_conf)?,
+            )?;
+
+            let pageserver =
+                PageServerNode::from_env(&self.env, self.env.get_pageserver_conf(pageserver_id)?);
+            let ps_http_conf = &pageserver.pg_connection_config;
+            let (host, port) = (ps_http_conf.host(), ps_http_conf.port());
+            spec.pageserver_connstring = Some(format!("postgresql://no_user@{host}:{port}"));
+        }
+
+        let client = reqwest::blocking::Client::new();
+        let response = client
+            .post(format!(
+                "http://{}:{}/configure",
+                self.http_address.ip(),
+                self.http_address.port()
+            ))
+            .body(format!(
+                "{{\"spec\":{}}}",
+                serde_json::to_string_pretty(&spec)?
+            ))
+            .send()?;
+
+        let status = response.status();
+        if !(status.is_client_error() || status.is_server_error()) {
+            Ok(())
+        } else {
+            let url = response.url().to_owned();
+            let msg = match response.text() {
+                Ok(err_body) => format!("Error: {}", err_body),
+                Err(_) => format!("Http error ({}) at {}.", status.as_u16(), url),
+            };
+            Err(anyhow::anyhow!(msg))
+        }
+    }
+
    pub fn stop(&self, destroy: bool) -> Result<()> {
        // If we are going to destroy data directory,
        // use immediate shutdown mode, otherwise,
@@ -623,15 +682,25 @@ impl Endpoint {
        // Postgres is always started from scratch, so stop
        // without destroy only used for testing and debugging.
        //
+        self.pg_ctl(
+            if destroy {
+                &["-m", "immediate", "stop"]
+            } else {
+                &["stop"]
+            },
+            &None,
+        )?;
+
+        // Also wait for the compute_ctl process to die. It might have some cleanup
+        // work to do after postgres stops, like syncing safekeepers, etc.
+        //
+        self.wait_for_compute_ctl_to_exit()?;
        if destroy {
-            self.pg_ctl(&["-m", "immediate", "stop"], &None)?;
            println!(
                "Destroying postgres data directory '{}'",
                self.pgdata().to_str().unwrap()
            );
            std::fs::remove_dir_all(self.endpoint_path())?;
-        } else {
-            self.pg_ctl(&["stop"], &None)?;
        }
        Ok(())
    }
--- a/control_plane/src/lib.rs
+++ b/control_plane/src/lib.rs
@@ -1,12 +1,12 @@
-//
-// Local control plane.
-//
-// Can start, configure and stop postgres instances running as a local processes.
-//
-// Intended to be used in integration tests and in CLI tools for
-// local installations.
-//
+//! Local control plane.
+//!
+//! Can start, configure and stop postgres instances running as a local processes.
+//!
+//! Intended to be used in integration tests and in CLI tools for
+//! local installations.
+#![deny(clippy::undocumented_unsafe_blocks)]

+pub mod attachment_service;
 mod background_process;
 pub mod broker;
 pub mod endpoint;
--- a/control_plane/src/local_env.rs
+++ b/control_plane/src/local_env.rs
@@ -8,7 +8,6 @@ use anyhow::{bail, ensure, Context};
 use postgres_backend::AuthType;
 use reqwest::Url;
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use serde_with::{serde_as, DisplayFromStr};
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::env;
 use std::fs;
@@ -33,7 +32,6 @@ pub const DEFAULT_PG_VERSION: u32 = 15;
 // to 'neon_local init --config=<path>' option. See control_plane/simple.conf for
 // an example.
 //
-#[serde_as]
 #[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, PartialEq, Eq, Clone, Debug)]
 pub struct LocalEnv {
    // Base directory for all the nodes (the pageserver, safekeepers and
@@ -59,7 +57,6 @@ pub struct LocalEnv {
    // Default tenant ID to use with the 'neon_local' command line utility, when
    // --tenant_id is not explicitly specified.
    #[serde(default)]
-    #[serde_as(as = "Option<DisplayFromStr>")]
    pub default_tenant_id: Option<TenantId>,

    // used to issue tokens during e.g pg start
@@ -68,17 +65,22 @@ pub struct LocalEnv {

    pub broker: NeonBroker,

-    pub pageserver: PageServerConf,
+    /// This Vec must always contain at least one pageserver
+    pub pageservers: Vec<PageServerConf>,

    #[serde(default)]
    pub safekeepers: Vec<SafekeeperConf>,

+    // Control plane location: if None, we will not run attachment_service.  If set, this will
+    // be propagated into each pageserver's configuration.
+    #[serde(default)]
+    pub control_plane_api: Option<Url>,
+
    /// Keep human-readable aliases in memory (and persist them to config), to hide ZId hex strings from the user.
    #[serde(default)]
    // A `HashMap<String, HashMap<TenantId, TimelineId>>` would be more appropriate here,
    // but deserialization into a generic toml object as `toml::Value::try_from` fails with an error.
    // https://toml.io/en/v1.0.0 does not contain a concept of "a table inside another table".
-    #[serde_as(as = "HashMap<_, Vec<(DisplayFromStr, DisplayFromStr)>>")]
    branch_name_mappings: HashMap<String, Vec<(TenantId, TimelineId)>>,
 }

@@ -176,32 +178,28 @@ impl LocalEnv {
    pub fn pg_distrib_dir(&self, pg_version: u32) -> anyhow::Result<PathBuf> {
        let path = self.pg_distrib_dir.clone();

+        #[allow(clippy::manual_range_patterns)]
        match pg_version {
-            14 => Ok(path.join(format!("v{pg_version}"))),
-            15 => Ok(path.join(format!("v{pg_version}"))),
+            14 | 15 | 16 => Ok(path.join(format!("v{pg_version}"))),
            _ => bail!("Unsupported postgres version: {}", pg_version),
        }
    }

    pub fn pg_bin_dir(&self, pg_version: u32) -> anyhow::Result<PathBuf> {
-        match pg_version {
-            14 => Ok(self.pg_distrib_dir(pg_version)?.join("bin")),
-            15 => Ok(self.pg_distrib_dir(pg_version)?.join("bin")),
-            _ => bail!("Unsupported postgres version: {}", pg_version),
-        }
+        Ok(self.pg_distrib_dir(pg_version)?.join("bin"))
    }
    pub fn pg_lib_dir(&self, pg_version: u32) -> anyhow::Result<PathBuf> {
-        match pg_version {
-            14 => Ok(self.pg_distrib_dir(pg_version)?.join("lib")),
-            15 => Ok(self.pg_distrib_dir(pg_version)?.join("lib")),
-            _ => bail!("Unsupported postgres version: {}", pg_version),
-        }
+        Ok(self.pg_distrib_dir(pg_version)?.join("lib"))
    }

    pub fn pageserver_bin(&self) -> PathBuf {
        self.neon_distrib_dir.join("pageserver")
    }

+    pub fn attachment_service_bin(&self) -> PathBuf {
+        self.neon_distrib_dir.join("attachment_service")
+    }
+
    pub fn safekeeper_bin(&self) -> PathBuf {
        self.neon_distrib_dir.join("safekeeper")
    }
@@ -214,15 +212,23 @@ impl LocalEnv {
        self.base_data_dir.join("endpoints")
    }

-    // TODO: move pageserver files into ./pageserver
-    pub fn pageserver_data_dir(&self) -> PathBuf {
-        self.base_data_dir.clone()
+    pub fn pageserver_data_dir(&self, pageserver_id: NodeId) -> PathBuf {
+        self.base_data_dir
+            .join(format!("pageserver_{pageserver_id}"))
    }

    pub fn safekeeper_data_dir(&self, data_dir_name: &str) -> PathBuf {
        self.base_data_dir.join("safekeepers").join(data_dir_name)
    }

+    pub fn get_pageserver_conf(&self, id: NodeId) -> anyhow::Result<&PageServerConf> {
+        if let Some(conf) = self.pageservers.iter().find(|node| node.id == id) {
+            Ok(conf)
+        } else {
+            bail!("could not find pageserver {id}")
+        }
+    }
+
    pub fn register_branch_mapping(
        &mut self,
        branch_name: String,
@@ -299,6 +305,10 @@ impl LocalEnv {
            env.neon_distrib_dir = env::current_exe()?.parent().unwrap().to_owned();
        }

+        if env.pageservers.is_empty() {
+            anyhow::bail!("Configuration must contain at least one pageserver");
+        }
+
        env.base_data_dir = base_path();

        Ok(env)
@@ -331,7 +341,7 @@ impl LocalEnv {
        // We read that in, in `create_config`, and fill any missing defaults. Then it's saved
        // to .neon/config. TODO: We lose any formatting and comments along the way, which is
        // a bit sad.
-        let mut conf_content = r#"# This file describes a locale deployment of the page server
+        let mut conf_content = r#"# This file describes a local deployment of the page server
 # and safekeeeper node. It is read by the 'neon_local' command-line
 # utility.
 "#
@@ -461,9 +471,9 @@ impl LocalEnv {
    }

    fn auth_keys_needed(&self) -> bool {
-        self.pageserver.pg_auth_type == AuthType::NeonJWT
-            || self.pageserver.http_auth_type == AuthType::NeonJWT
-            || self.safekeepers.iter().any(|sk| sk.auth_enabled)
+        self.pageservers.iter().any(|ps| {
+            ps.pg_auth_type == AuthType::NeonJWT || ps.http_auth_type == AuthType::NeonJWT
+        }) || self.safekeepers.iter().any(|sk| sk.auth_enabled)
    }
 }

--- a/control_plane/src/pageserver.rs
+++ b/control_plane/src/pageserver.rs
@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@ use std::process::{Child, Command};
 use std::{io, result};

 use anyhow::{bail, Context};
+use camino::Utf8PathBuf;
 use pageserver_api::models::{self, TenantInfo, TimelineInfo};
 use postgres_backend::AuthType;
 use postgres_connection::{parse_host_port, PgConnectionConfig};
@@ -27,6 +28,7 @@ use utils::{
    lsn::Lsn,
 };

+use crate::local_env::PageServerConf;
 use crate::{background_process, local_env::LocalEnv};

 #[derive(Error, Debug)]
@@ -76,43 +78,40 @@ impl ResponseErrorMessageExt for Response {
 #[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct PageServerNode {
    pub pg_connection_config: PgConnectionConfig,
+    pub conf: PageServerConf,
    pub env: LocalEnv,
    pub http_client: Client,
    pub http_base_url: String,
 }

 impl PageServerNode {
-    pub fn from_env(env: &LocalEnv) -> PageServerNode {
-        let (host, port) = parse_host_port(&env.pageserver.listen_pg_addr)
-            .expect("Unable to parse listen_pg_addr");
+    pub fn from_env(env: &LocalEnv, conf: &PageServerConf) -> PageServerNode {
+        let (host, port) =
+            parse_host_port(&conf.listen_pg_addr).expect("Unable to parse listen_pg_addr");
        let port = port.unwrap_or(5432);
        Self {
            pg_connection_config: PgConnectionConfig::new_host_port(host, port),
+            conf: conf.clone(),
            env: env.clone(),
            http_client: Client::new(),
-            http_base_url: format!("http://{}/v1", env.pageserver.listen_http_addr),
+            http_base_url: format!("http://{}/v1", conf.listen_http_addr),
        }
    }

    // pageserver conf overrides defined by neon_local configuration.
    fn neon_local_overrides(&self) -> Vec<String> {
-        let id = format!("id={}", self.env.pageserver.id);
+        let id = format!("id={}", self.conf.id);
        // FIXME: the paths should be shell-escaped to handle paths with spaces, quotas etc.
        let pg_distrib_dir_param = format!(
            "pg_distrib_dir='{}'",
            self.env.pg_distrib_dir_raw().display()
        );

-        let http_auth_type_param =
-            format!("http_auth_type='{}'", self.env.pageserver.http_auth_type);
-        let listen_http_addr_param = format!(
-            "listen_http_addr='{}'",
-            self.env.pageserver.listen_http_addr
-        );
+        let http_auth_type_param = format!("http_auth_type='{}'", self.conf.http_auth_type);
+        let listen_http_addr_param = format!("listen_http_addr='{}'", self.conf.listen_http_addr);

-        let pg_auth_type_param = format!("pg_auth_type='{}'", self.env.pageserver.pg_auth_type);
-        let listen_pg_addr_param =
-            format!("listen_pg_addr='{}'", self.env.pageserver.listen_pg_addr);
+        let pg_auth_type_param = format!("pg_auth_type='{}'", self.conf.pg_auth_type);
+        let listen_pg_addr_param = format!("listen_pg_addr='{}'", self.conf.listen_pg_addr);

        let broker_endpoint_param = format!("broker_endpoint='{}'", self.env.broker.client_url());

@@ -126,10 +125,18 @@ impl PageServerNode {
            broker_endpoint_param,
        ];

-        if self.env.pageserver.http_auth_type != AuthType::Trust
-            || self.env.pageserver.pg_auth_type != AuthType::Trust
+        if let Some(control_plane_api) = &self.env.control_plane_api {
+            overrides.push(format!(
+                "control_plane_api='{}'",
+                control_plane_api.as_str()
+            ));
+        }
+
+        if self.conf.http_auth_type != AuthType::Trust || self.conf.pg_auth_type != AuthType::Trust
        {
-            overrides.push("auth_validation_public_key_path='auth_public_key.pem'".to_owned());
+            // Keys are generated in the toplevel repo dir, pageservers' workdirs
+            // are one level below that, so refer to keys with ../
+            overrides.push("auth_validation_public_key_path='../auth_public_key.pem'".to_owned());
        }
        overrides
    }
@@ -137,23 +144,20 @@ impl PageServerNode {
    /// Initializes a pageserver node by creating its config with the overrides provided.
    pub fn initialize(&self, config_overrides: &[&str]) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
        // First, run `pageserver --init` and wait for it to write a config into FS and exit.
-        self.pageserver_init(config_overrides).with_context(|| {
-            format!(
-                "Failed to run init for pageserver node {}",
-                self.env.pageserver.id,
-            )
-        })
+        self.pageserver_init(config_overrides)
+            .with_context(|| format!("Failed to run init for pageserver node {}", self.conf.id))
    }

    pub fn repo_path(&self) -> PathBuf {
-        self.env.pageserver_data_dir()
+        self.env.pageserver_data_dir(self.conf.id)
    }

    /// The pid file is created by the pageserver process, with its pid stored inside.
    /// Other pageservers cannot lock the same file and overwrite it for as long as the current
    /// pageserver runs. (Unless someone removes the file manually; never do that!)
-    fn pid_file(&self) -> PathBuf {
-        self.repo_path().join("pageserver.pid")
+    fn pid_file(&self) -> Utf8PathBuf {
+        Utf8PathBuf::from_path_buf(self.repo_path().join("pageserver.pid"))
+            .expect("non-Unicode path")
    }

    pub fn start(&self, config_overrides: &[&str]) -> anyhow::Result<Child> {
@@ -162,7 +166,7 @@ impl PageServerNode {

    fn pageserver_init(&self, config_overrides: &[&str]) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
        let datadir = self.repo_path();
-        let node_id = self.env.pageserver.id;
+        let node_id = self.conf.id;
        println!(
            "Initializing pageserver node {} at '{}' in {:?}",
            node_id,
@@ -171,6 +175,10 @@ impl PageServerNode {
        );
        io::stdout().flush()?;

+        if !datadir.exists() {
+            std::fs::create_dir(&datadir)?;
+        }
+
        let datadir_path_str = datadir.to_str().with_context(|| {
            format!("Cannot start pageserver node {node_id} in path that has no string representation: {datadir:?}")
        })?;
@@ -201,7 +209,7 @@ impl PageServerNode {
        let datadir = self.repo_path();
        print!(
            "Starting pageserver node {} at '{}' in {:?}",
-            self.env.pageserver.id,
+            self.conf.id,
            self.pg_connection_config.raw_address(),
            datadir
        );
@@ -210,7 +218,7 @@ impl PageServerNode {
        let datadir_path_str = datadir.to_str().with_context(|| {
            format!(
                "Cannot start pageserver node {} in path that has no string representation: {:?}",
-                self.env.pageserver.id, datadir,
+                self.conf.id, datadir,
            )
        })?;
        let mut args = self.pageserver_basic_args(config_overrides, datadir_path_str);
@@ -254,7 +262,7 @@ impl PageServerNode {
        // FIXME: why is this tied to pageserver's auth type? Whether or not the safekeeper
        // needs a token, and how to generate that token, seems independent to whether
        // the pageserver requires a token in incoming requests.
-        Ok(if self.env.pageserver.http_auth_type != AuthType::Trust {
+        Ok(if self.conf.http_auth_type != AuthType::Trust {
            // Generate a token to connect from the pageserver to a safekeeper
            let token = self
                .env
@@ -279,7 +287,7 @@ impl PageServerNode {

    pub fn page_server_psql_client(&self) -> anyhow::Result<postgres::Client> {
        let mut config = self.pg_connection_config.clone();
-        if self.env.pageserver.pg_auth_type == AuthType::NeonJWT {
+        if self.conf.pg_auth_type == AuthType::NeonJWT {
            let token = self
                .env
                .generate_auth_token(&Claims::new(None, Scope::PageServerApi))?;
@@ -290,7 +298,7 @@ impl PageServerNode {

    fn http_request<U: IntoUrl>(&self, method: Method, url: U) -> anyhow::Result<RequestBuilder> {
        let mut builder = self.http_client.request(method, url);
-        if self.env.pageserver.http_auth_type == AuthType::NeonJWT {
+        if self.conf.http_auth_type == AuthType::NeonJWT {
            let token = self
                .env
                .generate_auth_token(&Claims::new(None, Scope::PageServerApi))?;
@@ -316,7 +324,8 @@ impl PageServerNode {

    pub fn tenant_create(
        &self,
-        new_tenant_id: Option<TenantId>,
+        new_tenant_id: TenantId,
+        generation: Option<u32>,
        settings: HashMap<&str, &str>,
    ) -> anyhow::Result<TenantId> {
        let mut settings = settings.clone();
@@ -382,11 +391,9 @@ impl PageServerNode {
                .context("Failed to parse 'gc_feedback' as bool")?,
        };

-        // If tenant ID was not specified, generate one
-        let new_tenant_id = new_tenant_id.unwrap_or(TenantId::generate());
-
        let request = models::TenantCreateRequest {
            new_tenant_id,
+            generation,
            config,
        };
        if !settings.is_empty() {
--- a/control_plane/src/safekeeper.rs
+++ b/control_plane/src/safekeeper.rs
@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@ use std::process::Child;
 use std::{io, result};

 use anyhow::Context;
+use camino::Utf8PathBuf;
 use postgres_connection::PgConnectionConfig;
 use reqwest::blocking::{Client, RequestBuilder, Response};
 use reqwest::{IntoUrl, Method};
@@ -97,8 +98,9 @@ impl SafekeeperNode {
        SafekeeperNode::datadir_path_by_id(&self.env, self.id)
    }

-    pub fn pid_file(&self) -> PathBuf {
-        self.datadir_path().join("safekeeper.pid")
+    pub fn pid_file(&self) -> Utf8PathBuf {
+        Utf8PathBuf::from_path_buf(self.datadir_path().join("safekeeper.pid"))
+            .expect("non-Unicode path")
    }

    pub fn start(&self, extra_opts: Vec<String>) -> anyhow::Result<Child> {
--- a/deny.toml
+++ b/deny.toml
@@ -4,7 +4,12 @@
 # to your expectations and requirements.

 # Root options
-targets = []
+targets = [
+    { triple = "x86_64-unknown-linux-gnu" },
+    { triple = "aarch64-unknown-linux-gnu" },
+    { triple = "aarch64-apple-darwin" },
+    { triple = "x86_64-apple-darwin" },
+]
 all-features = false
 no-default-features = false
 feature-depth = 1
--- a/docker-compose/compute_wrapper/var/db/postgres/specs/spec.json
+++ b/docker-compose/compute_wrapper/var/db/postgres/specs/spec.json
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@
            },
            {
                "name": "wal_level",
-                "value": "replica",
+                "value": "logical",
                "vartype": "enum"
            },
            {
--- a/docker-compose/docker_compose_test.sh
+++ b/docker-compose/docker_compose_test.sh
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ cleanup() {
 echo "clean up containers if exists"
 cleanup

-for pg_version in 14 15; do
+for pg_version in 14 15 16; do
    echo "start containers (pg_version=$pg_version)."
    PG_VERSION=$pg_version docker compose -f $COMPOSE_FILE up --build -d

--- a/docs/error-handling.md
+++ b/docs/error-handling.md
@@ -188,11 +188,60 @@ that.

 ## Error message style

+### PostgreSQL extensions
+
 PostgreSQL has a style guide for writing error messages:

 https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/error-style-guide.html

 Follow that guide when writing error messages in the PostgreSQL
-extension. We don't follow it strictly in the pageserver and
-safekeeper, but the advice in the PostgreSQL style guide is generally
-good, and you can't go wrong by following it.
+extensions.
+
+### Neon Rust code
+
+#### Anyhow Context
+
+When adding anyhow `context()`, use form `present-tense-verb+action`.
+
+Example:
+- Bad: `file.metadata().context("could not get file metadata")?;`
+- Good: `file.metadata().context("get file metadata")?;`
+
+#### Logging Errors
+
+When logging any error `e`, use `could not {e:#}` or `failed to {e:#}`.
+
+If `e` is an `anyhow` error and you want to log the backtrace that it contains,
+use `{e:?}` instead of `{e:#}`.
+
+#### Rationale
+
+The `{:#}` ("alternate Display") of an `anyhow` error chain is concatenation fo the contexts, using `: `.
+
+For example, the following Rust code will result in output
+```
+ERROR  failed to list users: load users from server: parse response: invalid json
+```
+
+This is more concise / less noisy than what happens if you do `.context("could not ...")?` at each level, i.e.:
+
+```
+ERROR  could not list users: could not load users from server: could not parse response: invalid json
+```
+
+
+```rust
+fn main() {
+  match list_users().context("list users") else {
+    Ok(_) => ...,
+    Err(e) => tracing::error!("failed to {e:#}"),
+  }
+}
+fn list_users() {
+  http_get_users().context("load users from server")?;
+}
+fn http_get_users() {
+  let response = client....?;
+  response.parse().context("parse response")?; // fails with serde error "invalid json"
+}
+```
--- a/docs/pageserver-services.md
+++ b/docs/pageserver-services.md
@@ -96,6 +96,16 @@ prefix_in_bucket = '/test_prefix/'

 `AWS_SECRET_ACCESS_KEY` and `AWS_ACCESS_KEY_ID` env variables can be used to specify the S3 credentials if needed.

+or
+
+```toml
+[remote_storage]
+container_name = 'some-container-name'
+container_region = 'us-east'
+prefix_in_container = '/test-prefix/'
+```
+
+`AZURE_STORAGE_ACCOUNT` and `AZURE_STORAGE_ACCESS_KEY` env variables can be used to specify the azure credentials if needed.

 ## Repository background tasks

--- a/docs/rfcs/025-generation-numbers.md
+++ b/docs/rfcs/025-generation-numbers.md
@@ -0,0 +1,957 @@
+# Pageserver: split-brain safety for remote storage through generation numbers
+
+## Summary
+
+A scheme of logical "generation numbers" for tenant attachment to pageservers is proposed, along with
+changes to the remote storage format to include these generation numbers in S3 keys.
+
+Using the control plane as the issuer of these generation numbers enables strong anti-split-brain
+properties in the pageserver cluster without implementing a consensus mechanism directly
+in the pageservers.
+
+## Motivation
+
+Currently, the pageserver's remote storage format does not provide a mechanism for addressing
+split brain conditions that may happen when replacing a node or when migrating
+a tenant from one pageserver to another.
+
+From a remote storage perspective, a split brain condition occurs whenever two nodes both think
+they have the same tenant attached, and both can write to S3. This can happen in the case of a
+network partition, pathologically long delays (e.g. suspended VM), or software bugs.
+
+In the current deployment model, control plane guarantees that a tenant is attached to one
+pageserver at a time, thereby ruling out split-brain conditions resulting from dual
+attachment (however, there is always the risk of a control plane bug). This control
+plane guarantee prevents robust response to failures, as if a pageserver is unresponsive
+we may not detach from it. The mechanism in this RFC fixes this, by making it safe to
+attach to a new, different pageserver even if an unresponsive pageserver may be running.
+
+Futher, lack of safety during split-brain conditions blocks two important features where occasional
+split-brain conditions are part of the design assumptions:
+
+- seamless tenant migration ([RFC PR](https://github.com/neondatabase/neon/pull/5029))
+- automatic pageserver instance failure handling (aka "failover") (RFC TBD)
+
+### Prior art
+
+- 020-pageserver-s3-coordination.md
+- 023-the-state-of-pageserver-tenant-relocation.md
+- 026-pageserver-s3-mvcc.md
+
+This RFC has broad similarities to the proposal to implement a MVCC scheme in
+S3 object names, but this RFC avoids a general purpose transaction scheme in
+favour of more specialized "generations" that work like a transaction ID that
+always has the same lifetime as a pageserver process or tenant attachment, whichever
+is shorter.
+
+## Requirements
+
+- Accommodate storage backends with no atomic or fencing capability (i.e. work within
+  S3's limitation that there are no atomics and clients can't be fenced)
+- Don't depend on any STONITH or node fencing in the compute layer (i.e. we will not
+  assume that we can reliably kill and EC2 instance and have it die)
+- Scoped per-tenant, not per-pageserver; for _seamless tenant migration_, we need
+  per-tenant granularity, and for _failover_, we likely want to spread the workload
+  of the failed pageserver instance to a number of peers, rather than monolithically
+  moving the entire workload to another machine.
+  We do not rule out the latter case, but should not constrain ourselves to it.
+
+## Design Tenets
+
+These are not requirements, but are ideas that guide the following design:
+
+- Avoid implementing another consensus system: we already have a strongly consistent
+  database in the control plane that can do atomic operations where needed, and we also
+  have a Paxos implementation in the safekeeper.
+- Avoiding locking in to specific models of how failover will work (e.g. do not assume that
+  all the tenants on a pageserver will fail over as a unit).
+- Be strictly correct when it comes to data integrity. Occasional failures of availability
+  are tolerable, occasional data loss is not.
+
+## Non Goals
+
+The changes in this RFC intentionally isolate the design decision of how to define
+logical generations numbers and object storage format in a way that is somewhat flexible with
+respect to how actual orchestration of failover works.
+
+This RFC intentionally does not cover:
+
+- Failure detection
+- Orchestration of failover
+- Standby modes to keep data ready for fast migration
+- Intentional multi-writer operation on tenants (multi-writer scenarios are assumed to be transient split-brain situations).
+- Sharding.
+
+The interaction between this RFC and those features is discussed in [Appendix B](#appendix-b-interoperability-with-other-features)
+
+## Impacted Components
+
+pageserver, control plane, safekeeper (optional)
+
+## Implementation Part 1: Correctness
+
+### Summary
+
+- A per-tenant **generation number** is introduced to uniquely identifying tenant attachments to pageserver processes.
+
+  - This generation number increments each time the control plane modifies a tenant (`Project`)'s assigned pageserver, or when the assigned pageserver restarts.
+  - the control plane is the authority for generation numbers: only it may
+    increment a generation number.
+
+- **Object keys are suffixed** with the generation number
+- **Safety for multiply-attached tenants** is provided by the
+  generation number in the object key: the competing pageservers will not
+  try to write to the same keys.
+- **Safety in split brain for multiple nodes running with
+  the same node ID** is provided by the pageserver calling out to the control plane
+  on startup, to re-attach and thereby increment the generations of any attached tenants
+- **Safety for deletions** is achieved by deferring the DELETE from S3 to a point in time where the deleting node has validated with control plane that no attachment with a higher generation has a reference to the to-be-DELETEd key.
+- **The control plane is used to issue generation numbers** to avoid the need for
+  a built-in consensus system in the pageserver, although this could in principle
+  be changed without changing the storage format.
+
+### Generation numbers
+
+A generation number is associated with each tenant in the control plane,
+and each time the attachment status of the tenant changes, this is incremented.
+Changes in attachment status include:
+
+- Attaching the tenant to a different pageserver
+- A pageserver restarting, and "re-attaching" its tenants on startup
+
+These increments of attachment generation provide invariants we need to avoid
+split-brain issues in storage:
+
+- If two pageservers have the same tenant attached, the attachments are guaranteed to have different generation numbers, because the generation would increment
+  while attaching the second one.
+- If there are multiple pageservers running with the same node ID, all the attachments on all pageservers are guaranteed to have different generation numbers, because the generation would increment
+  when the second node started and re-attached its tenants.
+
+As long as the infrastructure does not transparently replace an underlying
+physical machine, we are totally safe. See the later [unsafe case](#unsafe-case-on-badly-behaved-infrastructure) section for details.
+
+### Object Key Changes
+
+#### Generation suffix
+
+All object keys (layer objects and index objects) will contain the attachment
+generation as a [suffix](#why-a-generation-suffix-rather-than-prefix).
+This suffix is the primary mechanism for protecting against split-brain situations, and
+enabling safe multi-attachment of tenants:
+
+- Two pageservers running with the same node ID (e.g. after a failure, where there is
+  some rogue pageserver still running) will not try to write to the same objects, because at startup they will have re-attached tenants and thereby incremented
+  generation numbers.
+- Multiple attachments (to different pageservers) of the same tenant will not try to write to the same objects, as each attachment would have a distinct generation.
+
+The generation is appended in hex format (8 byte string representing
+u32), to all our existing key names. A u32's range limit would permit
+27 restarts _per second_ over a 5 year system lifetime: orders of magnitude more than
+is realistic.
+
+The exact meaning of the generation suffix can evolve over time if necessary, for
+example if we chose to implement a failover mechanism internally to the pageservers
+rather than going via the control plane. The storage format just sees it as a number,
+with the only semantic property being that the highest numbered index is the latest.
+
+#### Index changes
+
+Since object keys now include a generation suffix, the index of these keys must also be updated. IndexPart currently stores keys and LSNs sufficient to reconstruct key names: this would be extended to store the generation as well.
+
+This will increase the size of the file, but only modestly: layers are already encoded as
+their string-ized form, so the overhead is about 10 bytes per layer. This will be less if/when
+the index storage format is migrated to a binary format from JSON.
+
+#### Visibility
+
+_This section doesn't describe code changes, but extends on the consequences of the
+object key changes given above_
+
+##### Visibility of objects to pageservers
+
+Pageservers can of course list objects in S3 at any time, but in practice their
+visible set is based on the contents of their LayerMap, which is initialized
+from the `index_part.json.???` that they load.
+
+Starting with the `index_part` from the most recent previous generation
+(see [loading index_part](#finding-the-remote-indices-for-timelines)), a pageserver
+initially has visibility of all the objects that were referenced in the loaded index.
+These objects are guaranteed to remain visible until the current generation is
+superseded, via pageservers in older generations avoiding deletions (see [deletion](#deletion)).
+
+The "most recent previous generation" is _not_ necessarily the most recent
+in terms of walltime, it is the one that is readable at the time a new generation
+starts. Consider the following sequence of a tenant being re-attached to different
+pageserver nodes:
+
+- Create + attach on PS1 in generation 1
+- PS1 Do some work, write out index_part.json-0001
+- Attach to PS2 in generation 2
+- Read index_part.json-0001
+- PS2 starts doing some work...
+- Attach to PS3 in generation 3
+- Read index_part.json-0001
+- **...PS2 finishes its work: now it writes index_part.json-0002**
+- PS3 writes out index_part.json-0003
+
+In the above sequence, the ancestry of indices is:
+
+```
+0001 -> 0002
+     |
+     -> 0003
+```
+
+This is not an issue for safety: if the 0002 references some object that is
+not in 0001, then 0003 simply does not see it, and will re-do whatever
+work was required (e.g. ingesting WAL or doing compaction). Objects referenced
+by only the 0002 index will never be read by future attachment generations, and
+will eventually be cleaned up by a scrub (see [scrubbing](#cleaning-up-orphan-objects-scrubbing)).
+
+##### Visibility of LSNs to clients
+
+Because index_part.json is now written with a generation suffix, which data
+is visible depends on which generation the reader is operating in:
+
+- If one was passively reading from S3 from outside of a pageserver, the
+  visibility of data would depend on which index_part.json-<generation> file
+  one had chosen to read from.
+- If two pageservers have the same tenant attached, they may have different
+  data visible as they're independently replaying the WAL, and maintaining
+  independent LayerMaps that are written to independent index_part.json files.
+  Data does not have to be remotely committed to be visible.
+- For a pageserver writing with a stale generation, historic LSNs
+  remain readable until another pageserver (with a higher generation suffix)
+  decides to execute GC deletions. At this point, we may think of the stale
+  attachment's generation as having logically ended: during its existence
+  the generation had a consistent view of the world.
+- For a newly attached pageserver, its highest visible LSN may appears to
+  go backwards with respect to an earlier attachment, if that earlier
+  attachment had not uploaded all data to S3 before the new attachment.
+
+### Deletion
+
+#### Generation number validation
+
+While writes are de-conflicted by writers always using their own generation number in the key,
+deletions are slightly more challenging: if a pageserver A is isolated, and the true active node is
+pageserver B, then it is dangerous for A to do any object deletions, even of objects that it wrote
+itself, because pageserver's B metadata might reference those objects.
+
+We solve this by inserting a "generation validation" step between the write of a remote index
+that un-links a particular object from the index, and the actual deletion of the object, such
+that deletions strictly obey the following ordering:
+
+1. Write out index_part.json: this guarantees that any subsequent reader of the metadata will
+   not try and read the object we unlinked.
+2. Call out to control plane to validate that the generation which we use for our attachment is still the latest.
+3. If step 2 passes, it is safe to delete the object. Why? The check-in with control plane
+   together with our visibility rules guarantees that any later generation
+   will use either the exact `index_part.json` that we uploaded in step 1, or a successor
+   of it; not an earlier one. In both cases, the `index_part.json` doesn't reference the
+   key we are deleting anymore, so, the key is invisible to any later attachment generation.
+   Hence it's safe to delete it.
+
+Note that at step 2 we are only confirming that deletions of objects _no longer referenced
+by the specific `index_part.json` written in step 1_ are safe. If we were attempting other deletions concurrently,
+these would need their own generation validation step.
+
+If step 2 fails, we may leak the object. This is safe, but has a cost: see [scrubbing](#cleaning-up-orphan-objects-scrubbing). We may avoid this entirely outside of node
+failures, if we do proper flushing of deletions on clean shutdown and clean migration.
+
+To avoid doing a huge number of control plane requests to perform generation validation,
+validation of many tenants will be done in a single request, and deletions will be queued up
+prior to validation: see [Persistent deletion queue](#persistent-deletion-queue) for more.
+
+#### `remote_consistent_lsn` updates
+
+Remote objects are not the only kind of deletion the pageserver does: it also indirectly deletes
+WAL data, by feeding back remote_consistent_lsn to safekeepers, as a signal to the safekeepers that
+they may drop data below this LSN.
+
+For the same reasons that deletion of objects must be guarded by an attachment generation number
+validation step, updates to `remote_consistent_lsn` are subject to the same rules, using
+an ordering as follows:
+
+1. upload the index_part that covers data up to LSN `L0` to S3
+2. Call out to control plane to validate that the generation which we use for our attachment is still the latest.
+3. advance the `remote_consistent_lsn` that we advertise to the safekeepers to `L0`
+
+If step 2 fails, then the `remote_consistent_lsn` advertised
+to safekeepers will not advance again until a pageserver
+with the latest generation is ready to do so.
+
+**Note:** at step 3 we are not advertising the _latest_ remote_consistent_lsn, we are
+advertising the value in the index_part that we uploaded in step 1. This provides
+a strong ordering guarantee.
+
+Internally to the pageserver, each timeline will have two remote_consistent_lsn values: the one that
+reflects its latest write to remote storage, and the one that reflects the most
+recent validation of generation number. It is only the latter value that may
+be advertised to the outside world (i.e. to the safekeeper).
+
+The control plane remains unaware of `remote_consistent_lsn`: it only has to validate
+the freshness of generation numbers, thereby granting the pageserver permission to
+share the information with the safekeeper.
+
+For convenience, in subsequent sections and RFCs we will use "deletion" to mean both deletion
+of objects in S3, and updates to the `remote_consistent_lsn`, as updates to the remote consistent
+LSN are de-facto deletions done via the safekeeper, and both kinds of deletion are subject to
+the same generation validation requirement.
+
+### Pageserver attach/startup changes
+
+#### Attachment
+
+Calls to `/v1/tenant/{tenant_id}/attach` are augmented with an additional
+`generation` field in the body.
+
+The pageserver does not persist this: a generation is only good for the lifetime
+of a process.
+
+#### Finding the remote indices for timelines
+
+Because index files are now suffixed with generation numbers, the pageserver
+cannot always GET the remote index in one request, because it can't always
+know a-priori what the latest remote index is.
+
+Typically, the most recent generation to write an index would be our own
+generation minus 1. However, this might not be the case: the previous
+node might have started and acquired a generation number, and then crashed
+before writing out a remote index.
+
+In the general case and as a fallback, the pageserver may list all the `index_part.json`
+files for a timeline, sort them by generation, and pick the highest that is `<=`
+its current generation for this attachment. The tenant should never load an index
+with an attachment generation _newer_ than its own.
+These two rules combined ensure that objects written by later generations are never visible to earlier generations.
+
+Note that if a given attachment picks an index part from an earlier generation (say n-2), but crashes & restarts before it writes its own generation's index part, next time it tries to pick an index part there may be an index part from generation n-1.
+It would pick the n-1 index part in that case, because it's sorted higher than the previous one from generation n-2.
+So, above rules guarantee no determinism in selecting the index part.
+are allowed to be attached with stale attachment generations during a multiply-attached
+phase in a migration, and in this instance if the old location's pageserver restarts,
+it should not try and load the newer generation's index.
+
+To summarize, on starting a timeline, the pageserver will:
+
+1. Issue a GET for index_part.json-<my generation - 1>
+2. If 1 failed, issue a ListObjectsv2 request for index_part.json\* and
+   pick the newest.
+
+One could optimize this further by using the control plane to record specifically
+which generation most recently wrote an index_part.json, if necessary, to increase
+the probability of finding the index_part.json in one GET. One could also improve
+the chances by having pageservers proactively write out index_part.json after they
+get a new generation ID.
+
+#### Re-attachment on startup
+
+On startup, the pageserver will call out to an new control plane `/re-attach`
+API (see [Generation API](#generation-api)). This returns a list of
+tenants that should be attached to the pageserver, and their generation numbers, which
+the control plane will increment before returning.
+
+The pageserver should still scan its local disk on startup, but should _delete_
+any local content for tenants not indicated in the `/re-attach` response: their
+absence is an implicit detach operation.
+
+**Note** if a tenant is omitted from the re-attach response, its local disk content
+will be deleted. This will change in subsequent work, when the control plane gains
+the concept of a secondary/standby location: a node with local content may revert
+to this status and retain some local content.
+
+#### Cleaning up previous generations' remote indices
+
+Deletion of old indices is not necessary for correctness, although it is necessary
+to avoid the ListObjects fallback in the previous section becoming ever more expensive.
+
+Once the new attachment has written out its index_part.json, it may asynchronously clean up historic index_part.json
+objects that were found.
+
+We may choose to implement this deletion either as an explicit step after we
+write out index_part for the first time in a pageserver's lifetime, or for
+simplicity just do it periodically as part of the background scrub (see [scrubbing](#cleaning-up-orphan-objects-scrubbing));
+
+### Control Plane Changes
+
+#### Store generations for attaching tenants
+
+- The `Project` table must store the generation number for use when
+  attaching the tenant to a new pageserver.
+- The `/v1/tenant/:tenant_id/attach` pageserver API will require the generation number,
+  which the control plane can supply by simply incrementing the `Project`'s
+  generation number each time the tenant is attached to a different server: the same database
+  transaction that changes the assigned pageserver should also change the generation number.
+
+#### Generation API
+
+This section describes an API that could be provided directly by the control plane,
+or built as a separate microservice. In earlier parts of the RFC, when we
+discuss the control plane providing generation numbers, we are referring to this API.
+
+The API endpoints used by the pageserver to acquire and validate generation
+numbers are quite simple, and only require access to some persistent and
+linerizable storage (such as a database).
+
+Building this into the control plane is proposed as a least-effort option to exploit existing infrastructure and implement generation number issuance in the same transaction that mandates it (i.e., the transaction that updates the `Project` assignment to another pageserver).
+However, this is not mandatory: this "Generation Number Issuer" could
+be built as a microservice. In practice, we will write such a miniature service
+anyway, to enable E2E pageserver/compute testing without control plane.
+
+The endpoints required by pageservers are:
+
+##### `/re-attach`
+
+- Request: `{node_id: <u32>}`
+- Response:
+  - 200 `{tenants: [{id: <TenantId>, gen: <u32>}]}`
+  - 404: unknown node_id
+  - (Future: 429: flapping detected, perhaps nodes are fighting for the same node ID,
+    or perhaps this node was in a retry loop)
+  - (On unknown tenants, omit tenant from `tenants` array)
+- Server behavior: query database for which tenants should be attached to this pageserver.
+  - for each tenant that should be attached, increment the attachment generation and
+    include the new generation in the response
+- Client behavior:
+  - for all tenants in the response, activate with the new generation number
+  - for any local disk content _not_ referenced in the response, act as if we
+    had been asked to detach it (i.e. delete local files)
+
+**Note** the `node_id` in this request will change in future if we move to ephemeral
+node IDs, to be replaced with some correlation ID that helps the control plane realize
+if a process is running with the same storage as a previous pageserver process (e.g.
+we might use EC instance ID, or we might just write some UUID to the disk the first
+time we use it)
+
+##### `/validate`
+
+- Request: `{'tenants': [{tenant: <tenant id>, attach_gen: <gen>}, ...]}'`
+- Response:
+  - 200 `{'tenants': [{tenant: <tenant id>, status: <bool>}...]}`
+  - (On unknown tenants, omit tenant from `tenants` array)
+- Purpose: enable the pageserver to discover for the given attachments whether they are still the latest.
+- Server behavior: this is a read-only operation: simply compare the generations in the request with
+  the generations known to the server, and set status to `true` if they match.
+- Client behavior: clients must not do deletions within a tenant's remote data until they have
+  received a response indicating the generation they hold for the attachment is current.
+
+#### Use of `/load` and `/ignore` APIs
+
+Because the pageserver will be changed to only attach tenants on startup
+based on the control plane's response to a `/re-attach` request, the load/ignore
+APIs no longer make sense in their current form.
+
+The `/load` API becomes functionally equivalent to attach, and will be removed:
+any location that used `/load` before should just attach instead.
+
+The `/ignore` API is equivalent to detaching, but without deleting local files.
+
+### Timeline/Branch creation & deletion
+
+All of the previous arguments for safety have described operations within
+a timeline, where we may describe a sequence that includes updates to
+index_part.json, and where reads and writes are coming from a postgres
+endpoint (writes via the safekeeper).
+
+Creating or destroying timeline is a bit different, because writes
+are coming from the control plane.
+
+We must be safe against scenarios such as:
+
+- A tenant is attached to pageserver B while pageserver A is
+  in the middle of servicing an RPC from the control plane to
+  create or delete a tenant.
+- A pageserver A has been sent a timeline creation request
+  but becomes unresponsive. The tenant is attached to a
+  different pageserver B, and the timeline creation request
+  is sent there too.
+
+#### Timeline Creation
+
+If some very slow node tries to do a timeline creation _after_
+a more recent generation node has already created the timeline
+and written some data into it, that must not cause harm. This
+is provided in timeline creations by the way all the objects
+within the timeline's remote path include a generation suffix:
+a slow node in an old generation that attempts to "create" a timeline
+that already exists will just emit an index_part.json with
+an old generation suffix.
+
+Timeline IDs are never reused, so we don't have
+to worry about the case of create/delete/create cycles. If they
+were re-used during a disaster recovery "un-delete" of a timeline,
+that special case can be handled by calling out to all available pageservers
+to check that they return 404 for the timeline, and to flush their
+deletion queues in case they had any deletions pending from the
+timeline.
+
+The above makes it safe for control plane to change the assignment of
+tenant to pageserver in control plane while a timeline creation is ongoing.
+The reason is that the creation request against the new assigned pageserver
+uses a new generation number. However, care must be taken by control plane
+to ensure that a "timeline creation successul" response from some pageserver
+is checked for the pageserver's generation for that timeline's tenant still being the latest.
+If it is not the latest, the response does not constitute a successful timeline creation.
+It is acceptable to discard such responses, the scrubber will clean up the S3 state.
+It is better to issue a timelien deletion request to the stale attachment.
+
+#### Timeline Deletion
+
+Tenant/timeline deletion operations are exempt from generation validation
+on deletes, and therefore don't have to go through the same deletion
+queue as GC/compaction layer deletions. This is because once a
+delete is issued by the control plane, it is a promise that the
+control plane will keep trying until the deletion is done, so even stale
+pageservers are permitted to go ahead and delete the objects.
+
+The implications of this for control plane are:
+
+- During timeline/tenant deletion, the control plane must wait for the deletion to
+  be truly complete (status 404) and also handle the case where the pageserver
+  becomes unavailable, either by waiting for a replacement with the same node_id,
+  or by *re-attaching the tenant elsewhere.
+
+- The control plane must persist its intent to delete
+  a timeline/tenant before issuing any RPCs, and then once it starts, it must
+  keep retrying until the tenant/timeline is gone. This is already handled
+  by using a persistent `Operation` record that is retried indefinitely.
+
+Timeline deletion may result in a special kind of object leak, where
+the latest generation attachment completes a deletion (including erasing
+all objects in the timeline path), but some slow/partitioned node is
+writing into the timeline path with a stale generation number. This would
+not be caught by any per-timeline scrubbing (see [scrubbing](#cleaning-up-orphan-objects-scrubbing)), since scrubbing happens on the
+attached pageserver, and once the timeline is deleted it isn't attached anywhere.
+This scenario should be pretty rare, and the control plane can make it even
+rarer by ensuring that if a tenant is in a multi-attached state (e.g. during
+migration), we wait for that to complete before processing the deletion. Beyond
+that, we may implement some other top-level scrub of timelines in
+an external tool, to identify any tenant/timeline paths that are not found
+in the control plane database.
+
+#### Examples
+
+- Deletion, node restarts partway through:
+  - By the time we returned 202, we have written a remote delete marker
+  - Any subsequent incarnation of the same node_id will see the remote
+    delete marker and continue to process the deletion
+  - If the original pageserver is lost permanently and no replacement
+    with the same node_id is available, then the control plane must recover
+    by re-attaching the tenant to a different node.
+- Creation, node becomes unresponsive partway through.
+  - Control plane will see HTTP request timeout, keep re-issuing
+    request to whoever is the latest attachment point for the tenant
+    until it succeeds.
+  - Stale nodes may be trying to execute timeline creation: they will
+    write out index_part.json files with
+    stale attachment generation: these will be eventually cleaned up
+    by the same mechanism as other old indices.
+
+### Unsafe case on badly behaved infrastructure
+
+This section is only relevant if running on a different environment
+than EC2 machines with ephemeral disks.
+
+If we ever run pageservers on infrastructure that might transparently restart
+a pageserver while leaving an old process running (e.g. a VM gets rescheduled
+without the old one being fenced), then there is a risk of corruption, when
+the control plane attaches the tenant, as follows:
+
+- If the control plane sends an `/attach` request to node A, then node A dies
+  and is replaced, and the control plane's retries the request without
+  incrementing that attachment ID, then it could end up with two physical nodes
+  both using the same generation number.
+- This is not an issue when using EC2 instances with ephemeral storage, as long
+  as the control plane never re-uses a node ID, but it would need re-examining
+  if running on different infrastructure.
+- To robustly protect against this class of issue, we would either:
+  - add a "node generation" to distinguish between different processes holding the
+    same node_id.
+  - or, dispense with static node_id entirely and issue an ephemeral ID to each
+    pageserver process when it starts.
+
+## Implementation Part 2: Optimizations
+
+### Persistent deletion queue
+
+Between writing our a new index_part.json that doesn't reference an object,
+and executing the deletion, an object passes through a window where it is
+only referenced in memory, and could be leaked if the pageserver is stopped
+uncleanly. That introduces conflicting incentives: on the one hand, we would
+like to delay and batch deletions to
+1. minimize the cost of the mandatory validations calls to control plane, and
+2. minimize cost for DeleteObjects requests.
+On the other hand we would also like to minimize leakage by executing
+deletions promptly.
+
+To resolve this, we may make the deletion queue persistent
+and then executing these in the background at a later time.
+
+_Note: The deletion queue's reason for existence is optimization rather than correctness,
+so there is a lot of flexibility in exactly how the it should work,
+as long as it obeys the rule to validate generations before executing deletions,
+so the following details are not essential to the overall RFC._
+
+#### Scope
+
+The deletion queue will be global per pageserver, not per-tenant. There
+are several reasons for this choice:
+
+- Use the queue as a central point to coalesce validation requests to the
+  control plane: this avoids individual `Timeline` objects ever touching
+  the control plane API, and avoids them having to know the rules about
+  validating deletions. This separation of concerns will avoid burdening
+  the already many-LoC `Timeline` type with even more responsibility.
+- Decouple the deletion queue from Tenant attachment lifetime: we may
+  "hibernate" an inactive tenant by tearing down its `Tenant`/`Timeline`
+  objects in the pageserver, without having to wait for deletions to be done.
+- Amortize the cost of I/O for the persistent queue, instead of having many
+  tiny queues.
+- Coalesce deletions into a smaller number of larger DeleteObjects calls
+
+Because of the cost of doing I/O for persistence, and the desire to coalesce
+generation validation requests across tenants, and coalesce deletions into
+larger DeleteObjects requests, there will be one deletion queue per pageserver
+rather than one per tenant. This has the added benefit that when deactivating
+a tenant, we do not have to drain their deletion queue: deletions can proceed
+for a tenant whose main `Tenant` object has been torn down.
+
+#### Flow of deletion
+
+The flow of a deletion is becomes:
+
+1. Need for deletion of an object (=> layer file) is identified.
+2. Unlink the object from all the places that reference it (=> `index_part.json`).
+3. Enqueue the deletion to a persistent queue.
+   Each entry is `tenant_id, attachment_generation, S3 key`.
+4. Validate & execute in batches:
+  4.1 For a batch of entries, call into control plane.
+  4.2 For the subset of entries that passed validation, execute a `DeleteObjects` S3 DELETE request for their S3 keys.
+
+As outlined in the Part 1 on correctness, it is critical that deletions are only
+executed once the key is not referenced anywhere in S3.
+This property is obviously upheld by the scheme above.
+
+#### We Accept Object Leakage In Acceptable Circumcstances
+
+If we crash in the flow above between (2) and (3), we lose track of unreferenced object.
+Further, enqueuing a single to the persistent queue may not be durable immediately to amortize cost of flush to disk.
+This is acceptable for now, it can be caught by [the scrubber](#cleaning-up-orphan-objects-scrubbing).
+
+There are various measures we can take to improve this in the future.
+1. Cap amount of time until enqueued entry becomes durable (timeout for flush-to-tisk)
+2. Proactively flush:
+    - On graceful shutdown, as we anticipate that some or
+      all of our attachments may be re-assigned while we are offline.
+    - On tenant detach.
+3. For each entry, keep track of whether it has passed (2).
+   Only admit entries to (4) one they have passed (2).
+   This requires re-writing / two queue entries (intent, commit) per deletion.
+
+The important take-away with any of the above is that it's not
+disastrous to leak objects in exceptional circumstances.
+
+#### Operations that may skip the queue
+
+Deletions of an entire timeline are [exempt](#Timeline-Deletion) from generation number validation. Once the
+control plane sends the deletion request, there is no requirement to retain the readability
+of any data within the timeline, and all objects within the timeline path may be deleted
+at any time from the control plane's deletion request onwards.
+
+Since deletions of smaller timelines won't have enough objects to compose a full sized
+DeleteObjects request, it is still useful to send these through the last part of the
+deletion pipeline to coalesce with other executing deletions: to enable this, the
+deletion queue should expose two input channels: one for deletions that must be
+processed in a generation-aware way, and a fast path for timeline deletions, where
+that fast path may skip validation and the persistent queue.
+
+### Cleaning up orphan objects (scrubbing)
+
+An orphan object is any object which is no longer referenced by a running node or by metadata.
+
+Examples of how orphan objects arise:
+
+- A node PUTs a layer object, then crashes before it writes the
+  index_part.json that references that layer.
+- A stale node carries on running for some time, and writes out an unbounded number of
+  objects while it believes itself to be the rightful writer for a tenant.
+- A pageserver crashes between un-linking an object from the index, and persisting
+  the object to its deletion queue.
+
+Orphan objects are functionally harmless, but have a small cost due to S3 capacity consumed. We
+may clean them up at some time in the future, but doing a ListObjectsv2 operation and cross
+referencing with the latest metadata to identify objects which are not referenced.
+
+Scrubbing will be done only by an attached pageserver (not some third party process), and deletions requested during scrub will go through the same
+validation as all other deletions: the attachment generation must be
+fresh. This avoids the possibility of a stale pageserver incorrectly
+thinking than an object written by a newer generation is stale, and deleting
+it.
+
+It is not strictly necessary that scrubbing be done by an attached
+pageserver: it could also be done externally. However, an external
+scrubber would still require the same validation procedure that
+a pageserver's deletion queue performs, before actually erasing
+objects.
+
+## Operational impact
+
+### Availability
+
+Coordination of generation numbers via the control plane introduce a dependency for certain
+operations:
+
+1. Starting new pageservers (or activating pageservers after a restart)
+2. Executing enqueued deletions
+3. Advertising updated `remote_consistent_lsn` to enable WAL trimming
+
+Item 1. would mean that some in-place restarts that previously would have resumed service even if the control plane were
+unavailable, will now not resume service to users until the control plane is available. We could
+avoid this by having a timeout on communication with the control plane, and after some timeout,
+resume service with the previous generation numbers (assuming this was persisted to disk). However,
+this is unlikely to be needed as the control plane is already an essential & highly available component. Also, having a node re-use an old generation number would complicate
+reasoning about the system, as it would break the invariant that a generation number uniquely identifies
+a tenant's attachment to a given pageserver _process_: it would merely identify the tenant's attachment
+to the pageserver _machine_ or its _on-disk-state_.
+
+Item 2. is a non-issue operationally: it's harmless to delay deletions, the only impact of objects pending deletion is
+the S3 capacity cost.
+
+Item 3. could be an issue if safekeepers are low on disk space and the control plane is unavailable for a long time. If this became an issue,
+we could adjust the safekeeper to delete segments from local disk sooner, as soon as they're uploaded to S3, rather than waiting for
+remote_consistent_lsn to advance.
+
+For a managed service, the general approach should be to make sure we are monitoring & respond fast enough
+that control plane outages are bounded in time.
+
+There is also the fact that control plane runs in a single region.
+The latency for distant regions is not a big concern for us because all request types added by this RFC are either infrequent or not in the way of the data path.
+However, we lose region isolation for the operations listed above.
+The ongoing work to split console and control will give us per-region control plane, and all operations in this RFC can be handled by these per-region control planes.
+With that in mind, we accept the trade-offs outlined in this paragraph.
+
+We will also implement an "escape hatch" config generation numbers, where in a major disaster outage,
+we may manually run pageservers with a hand-selected generation number, so that we can bring them online
+independently of a control plane.
+
+### Rollout
+
+Although there is coupling between components, we may deploy most of the new data plane components
+independently of the control plane: initially they can just use a static generation number.
+
+#### Phase 1
+
+The pageserver is deployed with some special config to:
+
+- Always act like everything is generation 1 and do not wait for a control plane issued generation on attach
+- Skip the places in deletion and remote_consistent_lsn updates where we would call into control plane
+
+#### Phase 2
+
+The control plane changes are deployed: control plane will now track and increment generation numbers.
+
+#### Phase 3
+
+The pageserver is deployed with its control-plane-dependent changes enabled: it will now require
+the control plane to service re-attach requests on startup, and handle generation
+validation requests.
+
+### On-disk backward compatibility
+
+Backward compatibility with existing data is straightforward:
+
+- When reading the index, we may assume that any layer whose metadata doesn't include
+  generations will have a path without generation suffix.
+- When locating the index file on attachment, we may use the "fallback" listing path
+  and if there is only an index without generation suffix, that is the one we load.
+
+It is not necessary to re-write existing layers: even new index files will be able
+to represent generation-less layers.
+
+### On-disk forward compatibility
+
+We will do a two phase rollout, probably over multiple releases because we will naturally
+have some of the read-side code ready before the overall functionality is ready:
+
+1. Deploy pageservers which understand the new index format and generation suffixes
+   in keys, but do not write objects with generation numbers in the keys.
+2. Deploy pageservers that write objects with generation numbers in the keys.
+
+Old pageservers will be oblivious to generation numbers. That means that they can't
+read objects with generation numbers in the name. This is why we must
+first step must deploy the ability to read, before the second step
+starts writing them.
+
+# Frequently Asked Questions
+
+## Why a generation _suffix_ rather than _prefix_?
+
+The choice is motivated by object listing, since one can list by prefix but not
+suffix.
+
+In [finding remote indices](#finding-the-remote-indices-for-timelines), we rely
+on being able to do a prefix listing for `<tenant>/<timeline>/index_part.json*`.
+That relies on the prefix listing.
+
+The converse case of using a generation prefix and listing by generation is
+not needed: one could imagine listing by generation while scrubbing (so that
+a particular generation's layers could be scrubbed), but this is not part
+of normal operations, and the [scrubber](#cleaning-up-orphan-objects-scrubbing) probably won't work that way anyway.
+
+## Wouldn't it be simpler to have a separate deletion queue per timeline?
+
+Functionally speaking, we could. That's how RemoteTimelineClient currently works,
+but this approach does not map well to a long-lived persistent queue with
+generation validation.
+
+Anything we do per-timeline generates tiny random I/O, on a pageserver with
+tens of thousands of timelines operating: to be ready for high scale, we should:
+
+- A) Amortize costs where we can (e.g. a shared deletion queue)
+- B) Expect to put tenants into a quiescent state while they're not
+  busy: i.e. we shouldn't keep a tenant alive to service its deletion queue.
+
+This was discussed in the [scope](#scope) part of the deletion queue section.
+
+# Appendix A: Examples of use in high availability/failover
+
+The generation numbers proposed in this RFC are adaptable to a variety of different
+failover scenarios and models. The sections below sketch how they would work in practice.
+
+### In-place restart of a pageserver
+
+"In-place" here means that the restart is done before any other element in the system
+has taken action in response to the node being down.
+
+- After restart, the node issues a re-attach request to the control plane, and
+  receives new generation numbers for all its attached tenants.
+- Tenants may be activated with the generation number in the re-attach response.
+- If any of its attachments were in fact stale (i.e. had be reassigned to another
+  node while this node was offline), then
+  - the re-attach response will inform the tenant about this by not including
+    the tenant of this by _not_ incrementing the generation for that attachment.
+  - This will implicitly block deletions in the tenant, but as an optimization
+    the pageserver should also proactively stop doing S3 uploads when it notices this stale-generation state.
+  - The control plane is expected to eventually detach this tenant from the
+    pageserver.
+
+If the control plane does not include a tenant in the re-attach response,
+but there is still local state for the tenant in the filesystem, the pageserver
+deletes the local state in response and does not load/active the tenant.
+See the [earlier section on pageserver startup](#pageserver-attachstartup-changes) for details.
+Control plane can use this mechanism to clean up a pageserver that has been
+down for so long that all its tenants were migrated away before it came back
+up again and asked for re-attach.
+
+### Failure of a pageserver
+
+In this context, read "failure" as the most ambiguous possible case, where
+a pageserver is unavailable to clients and control plane, but may still be executing and talking
+to S3.
+
+#### Case A: re-attachment to other nodes
+
+1. Let's say node 0 becomes unresponsive in a cluster of three nodes 0, 1, 2.
+2. Some external mechanism notices that the node is unavailable and initiates
+   movement of all tenants attached to that node to a different node according
+   to some distribution rule.
+   In this example, it would mean incrementing the generation
+   of all tenants that were attached to node 0, as each tenant's assigned pageserver changes.
+3. A tenant which is now attached to node 1 will _also_ still be attached to node
+   0, from the perspective of node 0. Node 0 will still be using its old generation,
+   node 1 will be using a newer generation.
+4. S3 writes will continue from nodes 0 and 1: there will be an index_part.json-00000001
+   \_and\* an index_part.json-00000002. Objects written under the old suffix
+   after the new attachment was created do not matter from the rest of the system's
+   perspective: the endpoints are reading from the new attachment location. Objects
+   written by node 0 are just garbage that can be cleaned up at leisure. Node 0 will
+   not do any deletions because it can't synchronize with control plane, or if it could,
+   its deletion queue processing would get errors for the validation requests.
+
+#### Case B: direct node replacement with same node_id and drive
+
+This is the scenario we would experience if running pageservers in some dynamic
+VM/container environment that would auto-replace a given node_id when it became
+unresponsive, with the node's storage supplied by some network block device
+that is attached to the replacement VM/container.
+
+1. Let's say node 0 fails, and there may be some other peers but they aren't relevant.
+2. Some external mechanism notices that the node is unavailable, and creates
+   a "new node 0" (Node 0b) which is a physically separate server. The original node 0
+   (Node 0a) may still be running, because we do not assume the environment fences nodes.
+3. On startup, node 0b re-attaches and gets higher generation numbers for
+   all tenants.
+4. S3 writes continue from nodes 0a and 0b, but the writes do not collide due to different
+   generation in the suffix, and the writes from node 0a are not visible to the rest
+   of the system because endpoints are reading only from node 0b.
+
+# Appendix B: interoperability with other features
+
+## Sharded Keyspace
+
+The design in this RFC maps neatly to a sharded keyspace design where subsets of the key space
+for a tenant are assigned to different pageservers:
+
+- the "unit of work" for attachments becomes something like a TenantShard rather than a Tenant
+- TenantShards get generation numbers just as Tenants do.
+- Write workload (ingest, compaction) for a tenant is spread out across pageservers via
+  TenantShards, but each TenantShard still has exactly one valid writer at a time.
+
+## Read replicas
+
+_This section is about a passive reader of S3 pageserver state, not a postgres
+read replica_
+
+For historical reads to LSNs below the remote persistent LSN, any node may act as a reader at any
+time: remote data is logically immutable data, and the use of deferred deletion in this RFC helps
+mitigate the fact that remote data is not _physically_ immutable (i.e. the actual data for a given
+page moves around as compaction happens).
+
+A read replica needs to be aware of generations in remote data in order to read the latest
+metadata (find the index_part.json with the latest suffix). It may either query this
+from the control plane, or find it with ListObjectsv2 request
+
+## Seamless migration
+
+To make tenant migration totally seamless, we will probably want to intentionally double-attach
+a tenant briefly, serving reads from the old node while waiting for the new node to be ready.
+
+This RFC enables that double-attachment: two nodes may be attached at the same time, with the migration destination
+having a higher generation number. The old node will be able to ingest and serve reads, but not
+do any deletes. The new node's attachment must also avoid deleting layers that the old node may
+still use. A new piece of state
+will be needed for this in the control plane's definition of an attachment.
+
+## Warm secondary locations
+
+To enable faster tenant movement after a pageserver is lost, we will probably want to spend some
+disk capacity on keeping standby locations populated with local disk data.
+
+There's no conflict between this RFC and that: implementing warm secondary locations on a per-tenant basis
+would be a separate change to the control plane to store standby location(s) for a tenant. Because
+the standbys do not write to S3, they do not need to be assigned generation numbers. When a tenant is
+re-attached to a standby location, that would increment the tenant attachment generation and this
+would work the same as any other attachment change, but with a warm cache.
+
+## Ephemeral node IDs
+
+This RFC intentionally avoids changing anything fundamental about how pageservers are identified
+and registered with the control plane, to avoid coupling the implementation of pageserver split
+brain protection with more fundamental changes in the management of the pageservers.
+
+Moving to ephemeral node IDs would provide an extra layer of
+resilience in the system, as it would prevent the control plane
+accidentally attaching to two physical nodes with the same
+generation, if somehow there were two physical nodes with
+the same node IDs (currently we rely on EC2 guarantees to
+eliminate this scenario). With ephemeral node IDs, there would be
+no possibility of that happening, no matter the behavior of
+underlying infrastructure.
+
+Nothing fundamental in the pageserver's handling of generations needs to change to handle ephemeral node IDs, since we hardly use the
+`node_id` anywhere. The `/re-attach` API would be extended
+to enable the pageserver to obtain its ephemeral ID, and provide
+some correlation identifier (e.g. EC instance ID), to help the
+control plane re-attach tenants to the same physical server that
+previously had them attached.
--- a/docs/rfcs/027-crash-consistent-layer-map-through-index-part.md
+++ b/docs/rfcs/027-crash-consistent-layer-map-through-index-part.md
@@ -0,0 +1,281 @@
+
+# Crash-Consistent Layer Map Updates By Leveraging `index_part.json`
+
+* Created on: Aug 23, 2023
+* Author: Christian Schwarz
+
+## Summary
+
+This RFC describes a simple scheme to make layer map updates crash consistent by leveraging the `index_part.json` in remote storage.
+Without such a mechanism, crashes can induce certain edge cases in which broadly held assumptions about system invariants don't hold.
+
+## Motivation
+
+### Background
+
+We can currently easily make complex, atomic updates to the layer map by means of an RwLock.
+If we crash or restart pageserver, we reconstruct the layer map from:
+1. local timeline directory contents
+2. remote `index_part.json` contents.
+
+The function that is responsible for this is called `Timeline::load_layer_map()`.
+The reconciliation process's behavior is the following:
+* local-only files will become part of the layer map as local-only layers and rescheduled for upload
+* For a file name that, by its name, is present locally and in the remote `index_part.json`, but where the local file has a different size (future: checksum) than the remote file, we will delete the local file and leave the remote file as a `RemoteLayer` in the layer map.
+
+### The Problem
+
+There are are cases where we need to make an atomic update to the layer map that involves **more than one layer**.
+The best example is compaction, where we need to insert the L1 layers generated from the L0 layers, and remove the L0 layers.
+As stated above, making the update to the layer map in atomic way is trivial.
+But, there is no system call API to make an atomic update to a directory that involves more than one file rename and deletion.
+Currently, we issue the system calls one by one and hope we don't crash.
+
+What happens if we crash and restart in the middle of that system call sequence?
+We will reconstruct the layer map according to the reconciliation process, taking as input whatever transitory state the timeline directory ended up in.
+
+We cannot roll back or complete the timeline directory update during which we crashed, because we keep no record of the changes we plan to make.
+
+### Problem's Implications For Compaction
+
+The implications of the above are primarily problematic for compaction.
+Specifically, the part of it that compacts L0 layers into L1 layers.
+
+Remember that compaction takes a set of L0 layers and reshuffles the delta records in them into L1 layer files.
+Once the L1 layer files are written to disk, it atomically removes the L0 layers from the layer map and adds the L1 layers to the layer map.
+It then deletes the L0 layers locally, and schedules an upload of the L1 layers and and updated index part.
+
+If we crash before deleting L0s, but after writing out L1s, the next compaction after restart will re-digest the L0s and produce new L1s.
+This means the compaction after restart will **overwrite** the previously written L1s.
+Currently we also schedule an S3 upload of the overwritten L1.
+
+If the compaction algorithm doesn't change between the two compaction runs, is deterministic, and uses the same set of L0s as input, then the second run will produce identical L1s and the overwrites will go unnoticed.
+
+*However*:
+1. the file size of the overwritten L1s may not be identical, and
+2. the bit pattern of the overwritten L1s may not be identical, and,
+3. in the future, we may want to make the compaction code non-determinstic, influenced by past access patterns, or otherwise change it, resulting in L1 overwrites with a different set of delta records than before the overwrite
+
+The items above are a problem for the [split-brain protection RFC](https://github.com/neondatabase/neon/pull/4919) because it assumes that layer files in S3 are only ever deleted, but never replaced (overPUTted).
+
+For example, if an unresponsive node A becomes active again after control plane has relocated the tenant to a new node B, the node A may overwrite some L1s.
+But node B based its world view on the version of node A's `index_part.json` from _before_ the overwrite.
+That earlier `index_part.json`` contained the file size of the pre-overwrite L1.
+If the overwritten L1 has a different file size, node B will refuse to read data from the overwritten L1.
+Effectively, the data in the L1 has become inaccessible to node B.
+If node B already uploaded an index part itself, all subsequent attachments will use node B's index part, and run into the same probem.
+
+If we ever introduce checksums instead of checking just the file size, then a mismatching bit pattern (2) will cause similar problems.
+
+In case of (1) and (2), where we know that the logical content of the layers is still the same, we can recover by manually patching the `index_part.json` of the new node to the overwritten L1's file size / checksum.
+
+But if (3) ever happens, the logical content may be different, and, we could have truly lost data.
+
+Given the above considerations, we should avoid making correctness of split-brain protection dependent on overwrites preserving _logical_ layer file contents.
+**It is a much cleaner separation of concerns to require that layer files are truly immutable in S3, i.e., PUT once and then only DELETEd, never overwritten (overPUTted).**
+
+## Design
+
+Instead of reconciling a layer map from local timeline directory contents and remote index part, this RFC proposes to view the remote index part as authoritative during timeline load.
+Local layer files will be recognized if they match what's listed in remote index part, and removed otherwise.
+
+During **timeline load**, the only thing that matters is the remote index part content.
+Essentially, timeline load becomes much like attach, except we don't need to prefix-list the remote timelines.
+The local timeline dir's `metadata` file does not matter.
+The layer files in the local timeline dir are seen as a nice-to-have cache of layer files that are in the remote index part.
+Any layer files in the local timeline dir that aren't in the remote index part are removed during startup.
+The `Timeline::load_layer_map()` no longer "merges" local timeline dir contents with the remote index part.
+Instead, it treats the remote index part as the authoritative layer map.
+If the local timeline dir contains a layer that is in the remote index part, that's nice, and we'll re-use it if file size (and in the future, check sum) match what's stated in the index part.
+If it doesn't match, we remove the file from the local timeline dir.
+
+After load, **at runtime**, nothing changes compared to what we did before this RFC.
+The procedure for single- and multi-object changes is reproduced here for reference:
+* For any new layers that the change adds:
+  * Write them to a temporary location.
+  * While holding layer map lock:
+    * Move them to the final location.
+    * Insert into layer map.
+* Make the S3 changes.
+  We won't reproduce the remote timeline client method calls here because these are subject to change.
+  Instead we reproduce the sequence of s3 changes that must result for a given single-/multi-object change:
+    * PUT layer files inserted by the change.
+    * PUT an index part that has insertions and deletions of the change.
+    * DELETE the layer files that are deleted by the change.
+
+Note that it is safe for the DELETE to be deferred arbitrarily.
+* If it never happens, we leak the object, but, that's not a correctness concern.
+* As of #4938, we don't schedule the remote timeline client operation for deletion immediately, but, only when we drop the `LayerInner`.
+* With the [split-brain protection RFC](https://github.com/neondatabase/neon/pull/4919), the deletions will be written to deletion queue for processing when it's safe to do so (see the RFC for details).
+
+## How This Solves The Problem
+
+If we crash before we've finished the S3 changes, then timeline load will reset layer map to the state that's in the S3 index part.
+The S3 change sequence above is obviously crash-consistent.
+If we crash before the index part PUT, then we leak the inserted layer files to S3.
+If we crash after the index part PUT, we leak the to-be-DELETEd layer files to S3.
+Leaking is fine, it's a pre-existing condition and not addressed in this RFC.
+
+Multi-object changes that previously created and removed files in timeline dir are now atomic because the layer map updates are atomic and crash consistent:
+* atomic layer map update at runtime, currently by using an RwLock in write mode
+* atomic `index_part.json` update in S3, as per guarantee that S3 PUT is atomic
+* local timeline dir state:
+  * irrelevant for layer map content => irrelevant for atomic updates / crash consistency
+  * if we crash after index part PUT, local layer files will be used, so, no on-demand downloads neede for them
+  * if we crash before index part PUT, local layer files will be deleted
+
+## Trade-Offs
+
+### Fundamental
+
+If we crash before finishing the index part PUT, we lose all the work that hasn't reached the S3 `index_part.json`:
+* wal ingest: we lose not-yet-uploaded L0s; load on the **safekeepers** + work for pageserver
+* compaction: we lose the entire compaction iteration work; need to re-do it again
+* gc: no change to what we have today
+
+If the work is still deemed necessary after restart, the restarted restarted pageserver will re-do this work.
+The amount of work to be re-do is capped to the lag of S3 changes to the local changes.
+Assuming upload queue allows for unlimited queue depth (that's what it does today), this means:
+* on-demand downloads that were needed to do the work: are likely still present, not lost
+* wal ingest: currently unbounded
+* L0 => L1 compaction: CPU time proportional to `O(sum(L0 size))` and upload work proportional to `O()`
+  * Compaction threshold is 10 L0s and each L0 can be up to 256M in size. Target size for L1 is 128M.
+  * In practive, most L0s are tiny due to 10minute `DEFAULT_CHECKPOINT_TIMEOUT`.
+* image layer generation: CPU time `O(sum(input data))` + upload work `O(sum(new image layer size))`
+  * I have no intuition how expensive / long-running it is in reality.
+* gc: `update_gc_info`` work (not substantial, AFAIK)
+
+To limit the amount of lost upload work, and ingest work, we can limit the upload queue depth (see suggestions in the next sub-section).
+However, to limit the amount of lost CPU work, we would need a way to make make the compaction/image-layer-generation algorithms interruptible & resumable.
+We aren't there yet, the need for it is tracked by ([#4580](https://github.com/neondatabase/neon/issues/4580)).
+However, this RFC is not constraining the design space either.
+
+### Practical
+
+#### Pageserver Restarts
+
+Pageserver crashes are very rare ; it would likely be acceptable to re-do the lost work in that case.
+However, regular pageserver restart happen frequently, e.g., during weekly deploys.
+
+In general, pageserver restart faces the problem of tenants that "take too long" to shut down.
+They are a problem because other tenants that shut down quickly are unavailble while we wait for the slow tenants to shut down.
+We currently allot 10 seconds for graceful shutdown until we SIGKILL the pageserver process (as per `pageserver.service` unit file).
+A longer budget would expose tenants that are done early to a longer downtime.
+A short budget would risk throwing away more work that'd have to be re-done after restart.
+
+In the context of this RFC, killing the process would mean losing the work that hasn't made it to S3.
+We can mitigate this problem as follows:
+0. initially, by accepting that we need to do the work again
+1. short-term, introducing measures to cap the amount of in-flight work:
+
+   - cap upload queue length, use backpressure to slow down compaction
+   - disabling compaction/image-layer-generation X minutes before `systemctl restart pageserver`
+   - introducing a read-only shutdown state for tenants that are fast to shut down;
+     that state would be equivalent to the state of a tenant in hot standby / readonly mode.
+
+2. mid term, by not restarting pageserver in place, but using [*seamless tenant migration*](https://github.com/neondatabase/neon/pull/5029) to drain a pageserver's tenants before we restart it.
+
+#### `disk_consistent_lsn` can go backwards
+
+`disk_consistent_lsn` can go backwards across restarts if we crash before we've finished the index part PUT.
+Nobody should care about it, because the only thing that matters is `remote_consistent_lsn`.
+Compute certainly doesn't care about `disk_consistent_lsn`.
+
+
+## Side-Effects Of This Design
+
+* local `metadata` is basically reduced to a cache of which timelines exist for this tenant; i.e., we can avoid a `ListObjects` requests for a tenant's timelines during tenant load.
+
+## Limitations
+
+Multi-object changes that span multiple timelines aren't covered by this RFC.
+That's fine because we currently don't need them, as evidenced by the absence
+of a Pageserver operation that holds multiple timelines' layer map lock at a time.
+
+## Impacted components
+
+Primarily pageservers.
+
+Safekeepers will experience more load when we need to re-ingest WAL because we've thrown away work.
+No changes to safekeepers are needed.
+
+## Alternatives considered
+
+### Alternative 1: WAL
+
+We could have a local WAL for timeline dir changes, as proposed here https://github.com/neondatabase/neon/issues/4418 and partially implemented here https://github.com/neondatabase/neon/pull/4422 .
+The WAL would be used to
+1. make multi-object changes atomic
+2. replace `reconcile_with_remote()` reconciliation: scheduling of layer upload would be part of WAL replay.
+
+The WAL is appealing in a local-first world, but, it's much more complex than the design described above:
+* New on-disk state to get right.
+* Forward- and backward-compatibility development costs in the future.
+
+### Alternative 2: Flow Everything Through `index_part.json`
+
+We could have gone to the other extreme and **only** update the layer map whenever we've PUT `index_part.json`.
+I.e., layer map would always be the last-persisted S3 state.
+That's axiomatically beautiful, not least because it fully separates the layer file production and consumption path (=> [layer file spreading proposal](https://www.notion.so/neondatabase/One-Pager-Layer-File-Spreading-Christian-eb6b64182a214e11b3fceceee688d843?pvs=4)).
+And it might make hot standbys / read-only pageservers less of a special case in the future.
+
+But, I have some uncertainties with regard to WAL ingestion, because it needs to be able to do some reads for the logical size feedback to safekeepers.
+
+And it's silly that we wouldn't be able to use the results of compaction or image layer generation before we're done with the upload.
+
+Lastly, a temporarily clogged-up upload queue (e.g. S3 is down) shouldn't immediately render ingestion unavailable.
+
+### Alternative 3: Sequence Numbers For Layers
+
+Instead of what's proposed in this RFC, we could use unique numbers to identify layer files:
+
+```
+# before
+tenants/$tenant/timelines/$timeline/$key_and_lsn_range
+# after
+tenants/$tenant/timelines/$timeline/$layer_file_id-$key_and_lsn_range
+```
+
+To guarantee uniqueness, the unqiue number is a sequence number, stored in `index_part.json`.
+
+This alternative does not solve atomic layer map updates.
+In our crash-during-compaction scenario above, the compaction run after the crash will not overwrite the L1s, but write/PUT new files with new sequence numbers.
+In fact, this alternative makes it worse because the data is now duplicated in the not-overwritten and overwritten L1 layer files.
+We'd need to write a deduplication pass that checks if perfectly overlapping layers have identical contents.
+
+However, this alternative is appealing because it systematically prevents overwrites at a lower level than this RFC.
+
+So, this alternative is sufficient for the needs of the split-brain safety RFC (immutable layer files locally and in S3).
+But it doesn't solve the problems with crash-during-compaction outlined earlier in this RFC, and in fact, makes it much more accute.
+The proposed design in this RFC addresses both.
+
+So, if this alternative sounds appealing, we should implement the proposal in this RFC first, then implement this alternative on top.
+That way, we avoid a phase where the crash-during-compaction problem is accute.
+
+## Related issues
+
+- https://github.com/neondatabase/neon/issues/4749
+- https://github.com/neondatabase/neon/issues/4418
+  - https://github.com/neondatabase/neon/pull/4422
+- https://github.com/neondatabase/neon/issues/5077
+- https://github.com/neondatabase/neon/issues/4088
+  - (re)resolutions:
+    - https://github.com/neondatabase/neon/pull/4696
+    - https://github.com/neondatabase/neon/pull/4094
+      - https://neondb.slack.com/archives/C033QLM5P7D/p1682519017949719
+
+Note that the test case introduced in https://github.com/neondatabase/neon/pull/4696/files#diff-13114949d1deb49ae394405d4c49558adad91150ba8a34004133653a8a5aeb76 will produce L1s with the same logical content, but, as outlined in the last paragraph of the _Problem Statement_ section above, we don't want to make that  assumption in order to fix the problem.
+
+
+## Implementation Plan
+
+1. Remove support for `remote_storage=None`, because we now rely on the existence of an index part.
+
+    - The nasty part here is to fix all the tests that fiddle with the local timeline directory.
+      Possibly they are just irrelevant with this change, but, each case will require inspection.
+
+2. Implement the design above.
+
+    - Initially, ship without the mitigations for restart and accept we will do some work twice.
+    - Measure the impact and implement one of the mitigations.
+
--- a/docs/rfcs/028-pageserver-migration.md
+++ b/docs/rfcs/028-pageserver-migration.md
@@ -0,0 +1,599 @@
+# Seamless tenant migration
+
+- Author: john@neon.tech
+- Created on 2023-08-11
+- Implemented on ..
+
+## Summary
+
+The preceding [generation numbers RFC](025-generation-numbers.md) may be thought of as "making tenant
+migration safe". Following that,
+this RFC is about how those migrations are to be done:
+
+1. Seamlessly (without interruption to client availability)
+2. Quickly (enabling faster operations)
+3. Efficiently (minimizing I/O and $ cost)
+
+These points are in priority order: if we have to sacrifice
+efficiency to make a migration seamless for clients, we will
+do so, etc.
+
+This is accomplished by introducing two high level changes:
+
+- A dual-attached state for tenants, used in a control-plane-orchestrated
+  migration procedure that preserves availability during a migration.
+- Warm secondary locations for tenants, where on-disk content is primed
+  for a fast migration of the tenant from its current attachment to this
+  secondary location.
+
+## Motivation
+
+Migrating tenants between pageservers is essential to operating a service
+at scale, in several contexts:
+
+1. Responding to a pageserver node failure by migrating tenants to other pageservers
+2. Balancing load and capacity across pageservers, for example when a user expands their
+   database and they need to migrate to a pageserver with more capacity.
+3. Restarting pageservers for upgrades and maintenance
+
+The current situation steps for migration are:
+
+- detach from old node; skip if old node is dead; (the [skip part is still WIP](https://github.com/neondatabase/cloud/issues/5426)).
+- attach to new node
+- re-configure endpoints to use the new node
+
+Once [generation numbers](025-generation-numbers.md) are implemented,
+the detach step is no longer critical for correctness. So, we can
+
+- attach to a new node,
+- re-configure endpoints to use the new node, and then
+- detach from the old node.
+
+However, this still does not meet our seamless/fast/efficient goals:
+
+- Not fast: The new node will have to download potentially large amounts
+  of data from S3, which may take many minutes.
+- Not seamless: If we attach to a new pageserver before detaching an old one,
+  the new one might delete some objects that interrupt availability of reads on the old one.
+- Not efficient: the old pageserver will continue uploading
+  S3 content during the migration that will never be read.
+
+The user expectations for availability are:
+
+- For planned maintenance, there should be zero availability
+  gap. This expectation is fulfilled by this RFC.
+- For unplanned changes (e.g. node failures), there should be
+  minimal availability gap. This RFC provides the _mechanism_
+  to fail over quickly, but does not provide the failure _detection_
+  nor failover _policy_.
+
+## Non Goals
+
+- Defining service tiers with different storage strategies: the same
+  level of HA & overhead will apply to all tenants. This doesn't rule out
+  adding such tiers in future.
+- Enabling pageserver failover in the absence of a control plane: the control
+  plane will remain the source of truth for what should be attached where.
+- Totally avoiding availability gaps on unplanned migrations during
+  a failure (we expect a small, bounded window of
+  read unavailability of very recent LSNs)
+- Workload balancing: this RFC defines the mechanism for moving tenants
+  around, not the higher level logic for deciding who goes where.
+- Defining all possible configuration flows for tenants: the migration process
+  defined in this RFC demonstrates the sufficiency of the pageserver API, but
+  is not the only kind of configuration change the control plane will ever do.
+  The APIs defined here should let the control plane move tenants around in
+  whatever way is needed while preserving data safety and read availability.
+
+## Impacted components
+
+Pageserver, control plane
+
+## Terminology
+
+- **Attachment**: a tenant is _attached_ to a pageserver if it has
+  been issued a generation number, and is running an instance of
+  the `Tenant` type, ingesting the WAL, and available to serve
+  page reads.
+- **Location**: locations are a superset of attachments. A location
+  is a combination of a tenant and a pageserver. We may _attach_ at a _location_.
+
+- **Secondary location**: a location which is not currently attached.
+- **Warm secondary location**: a location which is not currently attached, but is endeavoring to maintain a warm local cache of layers. We avoid calling this a _warm standby_ to avoid confusion with similar postgres features.
+
+## Implementation (high level)
+
+### Warm secondary locations
+
+To enable faster migrations, we will identify at least one _secondary location_
+for each tenant. This secondary location will keep a warm cache of layers
+for the tenant, so that if it is later attached, it can catch up with the
+latest LSN quickly: rather than downloading everything, it only has to replay
+the recent part of the WAL to advance from the remote_consistent_offset to the
+most recent LSN in the WAL.
+
+The control plane is responsible for selecting secondary locations, and
+calling into pageservers to configure tenants into a secondary mode at this
+new location, as well as attaching the tenant in its existing primary location.
+
+The attached pageserver for a tenant will publish a [layer heatmap](#layer-heatmap)
+to advise secondaries of which layers should be downloaded.
+
+### Location modes
+
+Currently, we consider a tenant to be in one of two states on a pageserver:
+
+- Attached: active `Tenant` object, and layers on local disk
+- Detached: no layers on local disk, no runtime state.
+
+We will extend this with finer-grained modes, whose purpose will become
+clear in later sections:
+
+- **AttachedSingle**: equivalent the existing attached state.
+- **AttachedMulti**: like AttachedSingle, holds an up to date generation, but
+  does not do deletions.
+- **AttachedStale**: like AttachedSingle, holds a stale generation,
+  do not do any remote storage operations.
+- **Secondary**: keep local state on disk, periodically update from S3.
+- **Detached**: equivalent to existing detached state.
+
+To control these finer grained states, a new pageserver API endpoint will be added.
+
+### Cutover procedure
+
+Define old location and new location as "Node A" and "Node B". Consider
+the case where both nodes are available, and Node B was previously configured
+as a secondary location for the tenant we are migrating.
+
+The cutover procedure is orchestrated by the control plane, calling into
+the pageservers' APIs:
+
+1. Call to Node A requesting it to flush to S3 and enter AttachedStale state
+2. Increment generation, and call to Node B requesting it to enter AttachedMulti
+   state with the new generation.
+3. Call to Node B, requesting it to download the latest hot layers from remote storage,
+   according to the latest heatmap flushed by Node A.
+4. Wait for Node B's WAL ingestion to catch up with node A's
+5. Update endpoints to use node B instead of node A
+6. Call to node B requesting it to enter state AttachedSingle.
+7. Call to node A requesting it to enter state Secondary
+
+The following table summarizes how the state of the system advances:
+
+|     Step      |     Node A     |     Node B     | Node used by endpoints |
+| :-----------: | :------------: | :------------: | :--------------------: |
+| 1 (_initial_) | AttachedSingle |   Secondary    |           A            |
+|       2       | AttachedStale  | AttachedMulti  |           A            |
+|       3       | AttachedStale  | AttachedMulti  |           A            |
+|       4       | AttachedStale  | AttachedMulti  |           A            |
+| 5 (_cutover_) | AttachedStale  | AttachedMulti  |           B            |
+|       6       | AttachedStale  | AttachedSingle |           B            |
+|  7 (_final_)  |   Secondary    | AttachedSingle |           B            |
+
+The procedure described for a clean handover from a live node to a secondary
+is also used for failure cases and for migrations to a location that is not
+configured as a secondary, by simply skipping irrelevant steps, as described in
+the following sections.
+
+#### Migration from an unresponsive node
+
+If node A is unavailable, then all calls into
+node A are skipped and we don't wait for B to catch up before
+switching updating the endpoints to use B.
+
+#### Migration to a location that is not a secondary
+
+If node B is initially in Detached state, the procedure is identical. Since Node B
+is coming from a Detached state rather than Secondary, the download of layers and
+catch up with WAL will take much longer.
+
+We might do this if:
+
+- Attached and secondary locations are both critically low on disk, and we need
+  to migrate to a third node with more resources available.
+- We are migrating a tenant which does not use secondary locations to save on cost.
+
+#### Permanent migration away from a node
+
+In the final step of the migration, we generally request the original node to enter a Secondary
+state. This is typical if we are doing a planned migration during maintenance, or to
+balance CPU/network load away from a node.
+
+One might also want to permanently migrate away: this can be done by simply removing the secondary
+location after the migration is complete, or as an optimization by substituting the Detached state
+for the Secondary state in the final step.
+
+#### Cutover diagram
+
+```mermaid
+sequenceDiagram
+participant CP as Control plane
+participant A as Node A
+participant B as Node B
+participant E as Endpoint
+
+CP->>A: PUT Flush & go to AttachedStale
+note right of A: A continues to ingest WAL
+CP->>B: PUT AttachedMulti
+CP->>B: PUT Download layers from latest heatmap
+note right of B: B downloads from S3
+loop Poll until download complete
+CP->>B: GET download status
+end
+activate B
+note right of B: B ingests WAL
+loop Poll until catch up
+CP->>B: GET visible WAL
+CP->>A: GET visible WAL
+end
+deactivate B
+CP->>E: Configure to use Node B
+E->>B: Connect for reads
+CP->>B: PUT AttachedSingle
+CP->>A: PUT Secondary
+```
+
+#### Cutover from an unavailable pageserver
+
+This case is far simpler: we may skip straight to our intended
+end state.
+
+```mermaid
+sequenceDiagram
+participant A as Node A
+participant CP as Control plane
+participant B as Node B
+participant E as Endpoint
+
+note right of A: Node A offline
+activate A
+CP->>B: PUT AttachedSingle
+CP->>E: Configure to use Node B
+E->>B: Connect for reads
+deactivate A
+```
+
+## Implementation (detail)
+
+### Purpose of AttachedMulti, AttachedStale
+
+#### AttachedMulti
+
+Ordinarily, an attached pageserver whose generation is the latest may delete
+layers at will (e.g. during compaction). If a previous generation pageserver
+is also still attached, and in use by endpoints, then this layer deletion could
+lead to a loss of availability for the endpoint when reading from the previous
+generation pageserver.
+
+The _AttachedMulti_ state simply disables deletions. These will be enqueued
+in `RemoteTimelineClient` until the control plane transitions the
+node into AttachedSingle, which unblocks deletions.  Other remote storage operations
+such as uploads are not blocked.
+
+AttachedMulti is not required for data safety, only to preserve availability
+on pageservers running with stale generations.
+
+A node enters AttachedMulti only when explicitly asked to by the control plane. It should
+only remain in this state for the duration of a migration.
+
+If a control plane bug leaves
+the node in AttachedMulti for a long time, then we must avoid unbounded memory use from enqueued
+deletions. This may be accomplished simply, by dropping enqueued deletions when some modest
+threshold of delayed deletions (e.g. 10k layers per tenant) is reached. As with all deletions,
+it is safe to skip them, and the leaked objects will be eventually cleaned up by scrub or
+by timeline deletion.
+
+During AttachedMulti, the Tenant is free to drop layers from local disk in response to
+disk pressure: only the deletion of remote layers is blocked.
+
+#### AttachedStale
+
+Currently, a pageserver with a stale generation number will continue to
+upload layers, but be prevented from completing deletions. This is safe, but inefficient: layers uploaded by this stale generation
+will not be read back by future generations of pageservers.
+
+The _AttachedStale_ state disables S3 uploads. The stale pageserver
+will continue to ingest the WAL and write layers to local disk, but not to
+do any uploads to S3.
+
+A node may enter AttachedStale in two ways:
+
+- Explicitly, when control plane calls into the node at the start of a migration.
+- Implicitly, when the node tries to validate some deletions and discovers
+  that its generation is stale.
+
+The AttachedStale state also disables sending consumption metrics from
+that location: it is interpreted as an indication that some other pageserver
+is already attached or is about to be attached, and that new pageserver will
+be responsible for sending consumption metrics.
+
+#### Disk Pressure & AttachedStale
+
+Over long periods of time, a tenant location in AttachedStale will accumulate data
+on local disk, as it cannot evict any layers written since it entered the
+AttachStale state. We rely on the control plane to revert the location to
+Secondary or Detached at the end of a migration.
+
+This scenario is particularly noteworthy when evacuating all tenants on a pageserver:
+since _all_ the attached tenants will go into AttachedStale, we will be doing no
+uploads at all, therefore ingested data will cause disk usage to increase continuously.
+Under nominal conditions, the available disk space on pageservers should be sufficient
+to complete the evacuation before this becomes a problem, but we must also handle
+the case where we hit a low disk situation while in this state.
+
+The concept of disk pressure already exists in the pageserver: the `disk_usage_eviction_task`
+touches each Tenant when it determines that a low-disk condition requires
+some layer eviction. Having selected layers for eviction, the eviction
+task calls `Timeline::evict_layers`.
+
+**Safety**: If evict_layers is called while in AttachedStale state, and some of the to-be-evicted
+layers are not yet uploaded to S3, then the block on uploads will be lifted. This
+will result in leaking some objects once a migration is complete, but will enable
+the node to manage its disk space properly: if a node is left with some tenants
+in AttachedStale indefinitely due to a network partition or control plane bug,
+these tenants will not cause a full disk condition.
+
+### Warm secondary updates
+
+#### Layer heatmap
+
+The secondary location's job is to serve reads **with the same quality of service as the original location
+was serving them around the time of a migration**. This does not mean the secondary
+location needs the whole set of layers: inactive layers that might soon
+be evicted on the attached pageserver need not be downloaded by the
+secondary. A totally idle tenant only needs to maintain enough on-disk
+state to enable a fast cold start (i.e. the most recent image layers are
+typically sufficient).
+
+To enable this, we introduce the concept of a _layer heatmap_, which
+acts as an advisory input to secondary locations to decide which
+layers to download from S3.
+
+#### Attached pageserver
+
+The attached pageserver, if in state AttachedSingle, periodically
+uploads a serialized heat map to S3. It may skip this if there
+is no change since the last time it uploaded (e.g. if the tenant
+is totally idle).
+
+Additionally, when the tenant is flushed to remote storage prior to a migration
+(the first step in [cutover procedure](#cutover-procedure)), 
+the heatmap is written out. This enables a future attached pageserver
+to get an up to date view when deciding which layers to download.
+
+#### Secondary location behavior
+
+Secondary warm locations run a simple loop, implemented separately from
+the main `Tenant` type, which represents attached tenants:
+
+- Download the layer heatmap
+- Select any "hot enough" layers to download, if there is sufficient
+  free disk space.
+- Download layers, if they were not previously evicted (see below)
+- Download the latest index_part.json
+- Check if any layers currently on disk are no longer referenced by
+  IndexPart & delete them
+
+Note that the heatmap is only advisory: if a secondary location has plenty
+of disk space, it may choose to retain layers that aren't referenced
+by the heatmap, as long as they are still referenced by the IndexPart. Conversely,
+if a node is very low on disk space, it might opt to raise the heat threshold required
+to both downloading a layer, until more disk space is available.
+
+#### Secondary locations & disk pressure
+
+Secondary locations are subject to eviction on disk pressure, just as
+attached locations are.  For eviction purposes, the access time of a
+layer in a secondary location will be the access time given in the heatmap,
+rather than the literal time at which the local layer file was accessed.
+
+The heatmap will indicate which layers are in local storage on the attached
+location.  The secondary will always attempt to get back to having that
+set of layers on disk, but to avoid flapping, it will remember the access
+time of the layer it was most recently asked to evict, and layers whose
+access time is below that will not be re-downloaded.
+
+The resulting behavior is that after a layer is evicted from a secondary
+location, it is only re-downloaded once the attached pageserver accesses
+the layer and uploads a heatmap reflecting that access time.  On a pageserver
+restart, the secondary location will attempt to download all layers in
+the heatmap again, if they are not on local disk.
+
+This behavior will be slightly different when secondary locations are
+used for "low energy tenants", but that is beyond the scope of this RFC.
+
+### Location configuration API
+
+Currently, the `/tenant/<tenant_id>/config` API defines various
+tunables like compaction settings, which apply to the tenant irrespective
+of which pageserver it is running on.
+
+A new "location config" structure will be introduced, which defines
+configuration which is per-tenant, but local to a particular pageserver,
+such as the attachment mode and whether it is a secondary.
+
+The pageserver will expose a new per-tenant API for setting
+the state: `/tenant/<tenant_id>/location/config`.
+
+Body content:
+
+```
+{
+  state: 'enum{Detached, Secondary, AttachedSingle, AttachedMulti, AttachedStale}',
+  generation: Option<u32>,
+  configuration: `Option<TenantConfig>`
+  flush: bool
+}
+```
+
+Existing `/attach` and `/detach` endpoint will have the same
+behavior as calling `/location/config` with `AttachedSingle` and `Detached`
+states respectively. These endpoints will be deprecated and later
+removed.
+
+The generation attribute is mandatory for entering `AttachedSingle` or
+`AttachedMulti`.
+
+The configuration attribute is mandatory when entering any state other
+than `Detached`. This configuration is the same as the body for
+the existing `/tenant/<tenant_id>/config` endpoint.
+
+The `flush` argument indicates whether the pageservers should flush
+to S3 before proceeding: this only has any effect if the node is
+currently in AttachedSingle or AttachedMulti. This is used
+during the first phase of migration, when transitioning the
+old pageserver to AttachedSingle.
+
+The `/re-attach` API response will be extended to include a `state` as
+well as a `generation`, enabling the pageserver to enter the
+correct state for each tenant on startup.
+
+### Database schema for locations
+
+A new table `ProjectLocation`:
+
+- pageserver_id: int
+- tenant_id: TenantId
+- generation: Option<int>
+- state: `enum(Secondary, AttachedSingle, AttachedMulti)`
+
+Notes:
+
+- It is legacy for a Project to have zero `ProjectLocation`s
+- The `pageserver` column in `Project` now means "to which pageserver should
+  endpoints connect", rather than simply which pageserver is attached.
+- The `generation` column in `Project` remains, and is incremented and used
+  to set the generation of `ProjectLocation` rows when they are set into
+  an attached state.
+- The `Detached` state is implicitly represented as the absence of
+  a `ProjectLocation`.
+
+### Executing migrations
+
+Migrations will be implemented as Go functions, within the
+existing `Operation` framework in the control plane. These
+operations are persistent, such that they will always keep
+trying until completion: this property is important to avoid
+leaving garbage behind on pageservers, such as AttachedStale
+locations.
+
+### Recovery from failures during migration
+
+During migration, the control plane may encounter failures of either
+the original or new pageserver, or both:
+
+- If the original fails, skip past waiting for the new pageserver
+  to catch up, and put it into AttachedSingle immediately.
+- If the new node fails, put the old pageserver into Secondary
+  and then back into AttachedSingle (this has the effect of
+  retaining on-disk state and granting it a fresh generation number).
+- If both nodes fail, keep trying until one of them is available
+  again.
+
+### Control plane -> Pageserver reconciliation
+
+A migration may be done while the old node is unavailable,
+in which case the old node may still be running in an AttachedStale
+state.
+
+In this case, it is undesirable to have the migration `Operation`
+stay alive until the old node eventually comes back online
+and can be cleaned up. To handle this, the control plane
+should run a background reconciliation process to compare
+a pageserver's attachments with the database, and clean up
+any that shouldn't be there any more.
+
+Note that there will be no work to do if the old node was really
+offline, as during startup it will call into `/re-attach` and
+be updated that way. The reconciliation will only be needed
+if the node was unavailable but still running.
+
+## Alternatives considered
+
+### Only enabling secondary locations for tenants on a higher service tier
+
+This will make sense in future, especially for tiny databases that may be
+downloaded from S3 in milliseconds when needed.
+
+However, it is not wise to do it immediately, because pageservers contain
+a mixture of higher and lower tier workloads. If we had 1 tenant with
+a secondary location and 9 without, then those other 9 tenants will do
+a lot of I/O as they try to recover from S3, which may degrade the
+service of the tenant which had a secondary location.
+
+Until we segregate tenant on different service tiers on different pageserver
+nodes, or implement & test QoS to ensure that tenants with secondaries are
+not harmed by tenants without, we should use the same failover approach
+for all the tenants.
+
+### Hot secondary locations (continuous WAL replay)
+
+Instead of secondary locations populating their caches from S3, we could
+have them consume the WAL from safekeepers. The downsides of this would be:
+
+- Double load on safekeepers, which are a less scalable service than S3
+- Secondary locations' on-disk state would end up subtly different to
+  the remote state, which would make synchronizing with S3 more complex/expensive
+  when going into attached state.
+
+The downside of only updating secondary locations from S3 is that we will
+have a delay during migration from replaying the LSN range between what's
+in S3 and what's in the pageserver. This range will be very small on
+planned migrations, as we have the old pageserver flush to S3 immediately
+before attaching the new pageserver. On unplanned migrations (old pageserver
+is unavailable), the range of LSNs to replay is bounded by the flush frequency
+on the old pageserver. However, the migration doesn't have to wait for the
+replay: it's just that not-yet-replayed LSNs will be unavailable for read
+until the new pageserver catches up.
+
+We expect that pageserver reads of the most recent LSNs will be relatively
+rare, as for an active endpoint those pages will usually still be in the postgres
+page cache: this leads us to prefer synchronizing from S3 on secondary
+locations, rather than consuming the WAL from safekeepers.
+
+### Cold secondary locations
+
+It is not functionally necessary to keep warm caches on secondary locations at all. However, if we do not, then
+we would experience a de-facto availability loss in unplanned migrations, as reads to the new node would take an extremely long time (many seconds, perhaps minutes).
+
+Warm caches on secondary locations are necessary to meet
+our availability goals.
+
+### Pageserver-granularity failover
+
+Instead of migrating tenants individually, we could have entire spare nodes,
+and on a node death, move all its work to one of these spares.
+
+This approach is avoided for several reasons:
+
+- we would still need fine-grained tenant migration for other
+  purposes such as balancing load
+- by sharing the spare capacity over many peers rather than one spare node,
+  these peers may use the capacity for other purposes, until it is needed
+  to handle migrated tenants. e.g. for keeping a deeper cache of their
+  attached tenants.
+
+### Readonly during migration
+
+We could simplify migrations by making both previous and new nodes go into a
+readonly state, then flush remote content from the previous node, then activate
+attachment on the secondary node.
+
+The downside to this approach is a potentially large gap in readability of
+recent LSNs while loading data onto the new node. To avoid this, it is worthwhile
+to incur the extra cost of double-replaying the WAL onto old and new nodes' local
+storage during a migration.
+
+### Peer-to-peer pageserver communication
+
+Rather than uploading the heatmap to S3, attached pageservers could make it
+available to peers.
+
+Currently, pageservers have no peer to peer communication, so adding this
+for heatmaps would incur significant overhead in deployment and configuration
+of the service, and ensuring that when a new pageserver is deployed, other
+pageservers are updated to be aware of it.
+
+As well as simplifying implementation, putting heatmaps in S3 will be useful
+for future analytics purposes -- gathering aggregated statistics on activity
+pattersn across many tenants may be done directly from data in S3.
--- a/docs/updating-postgres.md
+++ b/docs/updating-postgres.md
@@ -0,0 +1,108 @@
+# Updating Postgres
+
+## Minor Versions
+
+When upgrading to a new minor version of Postgres, please follow these steps:
+
+_Example: 15.4 is the new minor version to upgrade to from 15.3._
+
+1. Clone the Neon Postgres repository if you have not done so already.
+
+    ```shell
+    git clone git@github.com:neondatabase/postgres.git
+    ```
+
+1. Add the Postgres upstream remote.
+
+    ```shell
+    git remote add upstream https://git.postgresql.org/git/postgresql.git
+    ```
+
+1. Create a new branch based on the stable branch you are updating.
+
+    ```shell
+    git checkout -b my-branch REL_15_STABLE_neon
+    ```
+
+1. Tag the last commit on the stable branch you are updating.
+
+    ```shell
+    git tag REL_15_3_neon
+    ```
+
+1. Push the new tag to the Neon Postgres repository.
+
+    ```shell
+    git push origin REL_15_3_neon
+    ```
+
+1. Find the release tags you're looking for. They are of the form `REL_X_Y`.
+
+1. Rebase the branch you created on the tag and resolve any conflicts.
+
+    ```shell
+    git fetch upstream REL_15_4
+    git rebase REL_15_4
+    ```
+
+1. Run the Postgres test suite to make sure our commits have not affected
+Postgres in a negative way.
+
+    ```shell
+    make check
+    # OR
+    meson test -C builddir
+    ```
+
+1. Push your branch to the Neon Postgres repository.
+
+    ```shell
+    git push origin my-branch
+    ```
+
+1. Clone the Neon repository if you have not done so already.
+
+    ```shell
+    git clone git@github.com:neondatabase/neon.git
+    ```
+
+1. Create a new branch.
+
+1. Change the `revisions.json` file to point at the HEAD of your Postgres
+branch.
+
+1. Update the Git submodule.
+
+    ```shell
+    git submodule set-branch --branch my-branch vendor/postgres-v15
+    git submodule update --remote vendor/postgres-v15
+    ```
+
+1. Run the Neon test suite to make sure that Neon is still good to go on this
+minor Postgres release.
+
+    ```shell
+    ./scripts/poetry -k pg15
+    ```
+
+1. Commit your changes.
+
+1. Create a pull request, and wait for CI to go green.
+
+1. Force push the rebased Postgres branches into the Neon Postgres repository.
+
+    ```shell
+    git push --force origin my-branch:REL_15_STABLE_neon
+    ```
+
+    It may require disabling various branch protections.
+
+1. Update your Neon PR to point at the branches.
+
+    ```shell
+    git submodule set-branch --branch REL_15_STABLE_neon vendor/postgres-v15
+    git commit --amend --no-edit
+    git push --force origin
+    ```
+
+1. Merge the pull request after getting approval(s) and CI completion.
--- a/libs/compute_api/src/lib.rs
+++ b/libs/compute_api/src/lib.rs
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+#![deny(unsafe_code)]
+#![deny(clippy::undocumented_unsafe_blocks)]
 pub mod requests;
 pub mod responses;
 pub mod spec;
--- a/libs/compute_api/src/spec.rs
+++ b/libs/compute_api/src/spec.rs
@@ -6,7 +6,6 @@
 use std::collections::HashMap;

 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use serde_with::{serde_as, DisplayFromStr};
 use utils::id::{TenantId, TimelineId};
 use utils::lsn::Lsn;

@@ -19,7 +18,6 @@ pub type PgIdent = String;

 /// Cluster spec or configuration represented as an optional number of
 /// delta operations + final cluster state description.
-#[serde_as]
 #[derive(Clone, Debug, Default, Deserialize, Serialize)]
 pub struct ComputeSpec {
    pub format_version: f32,
@@ -50,12 +48,12 @@ pub struct ComputeSpec {
    // these, and instead set the "neon.tenant_id", "neon.timeline_id",
    // etc. GUCs in cluster.settings. TODO: Once the control plane has been
    // updated to fill these fields, we can make these non optional.
-    #[serde_as(as = "Option<DisplayFromStr>")]
    pub tenant_id: Option<TenantId>,
-    #[serde_as(as = "Option<DisplayFromStr>")]
+
    pub timeline_id: Option<TimelineId>,
-    #[serde_as(as = "Option<DisplayFromStr>")]
+
    pub pageserver_connstring: Option<String>,
+
    #[serde(default)]
    pub safekeeper_connstrings: Vec<String>,

@@ -89,6 +87,8 @@ impl RemoteExtSpec {
        &self,
        ext_name: &str,
        is_library: bool,
+        build_tag: &str,
+        pg_major_version: &str,
    ) -> anyhow::Result<(String, RemotePath)> {
        let mut real_ext_name = ext_name;
        if is_library {
@@ -104,11 +104,32 @@ impl RemoteExtSpec {
                .ok_or(anyhow::anyhow!("library {} is not found", lib_raw_name))?;
        }

+        // Check if extension is present in public or custom.
+        // If not, then it is not allowed to be used by this compute.
+        if let Some(public_extensions) = &self.public_extensions {
+            if !public_extensions.contains(&real_ext_name.to_string()) {
+                if let Some(custom_extensions) = &self.custom_extensions {
+                    if !custom_extensions.contains(&real_ext_name.to_string()) {
+                        return Err(anyhow::anyhow!("extension {} is not found", real_ext_name));
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
        match self.extension_data.get(real_ext_name) {
-            Some(ext_data) => Ok((
-                real_ext_name.to_string(),
-                RemotePath::from_string(&ext_data.archive_path)?,
-            )),
+            Some(_ext_data) => {
+                // Construct the path to the extension archive
+                // BUILD_TAG/PG_MAJOR_VERSION/extensions/EXTENSION_NAME.tar.zst
+                //
+                // Keep it in sync with path generation in
+                // https://github.com/neondatabase/build-custom-extensions/tree/main
+                let archive_path_str =
+                    format!("{build_tag}/{pg_major_version}/extensions/{real_ext_name}.tar.zst");
+                Ok((
+                    real_ext_name.to_string(),
+                    RemotePath::from_string(&archive_path_str)?,
+                ))
+            }
            None => Err(anyhow::anyhow!(
                "real_ext_name {} is not found",
                real_ext_name
@@ -117,14 +138,13 @@ impl RemoteExtSpec {
    }
 }

-#[serde_as]
 #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, Default, Eq, PartialEq, Deserialize, Serialize)]
 pub enum ComputeMode {
    /// A read-write node
    #[default]
    Primary,
    /// A read-only node, pinned at a particular LSN
-    Static(#[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")] Lsn),
+    Static(Lsn),
    /// A read-only node that follows the tip of the branch in hot standby mode
    ///
    /// Future versions may want to distinguish between replicas with hot standby
@@ -167,6 +187,8 @@ pub struct DeltaOp {
 pub struct Role {
    pub name: PgIdent,
    pub encrypted_password: Option<String>,
+    pub replication: Option<bool>,
+    pub bypassrls: Option<bool>,
    pub options: GenericOptions,
 }

@@ -177,6 +199,12 @@ pub struct Database {
    pub name: PgIdent,
    pub owner: PgIdent,
    pub options: GenericOptions,
+    // These are derived flags, not present in the spec file.
+    // They are never set by the control plane.
+    #[serde(skip_deserializing, default)]
+    pub restrict_conn: bool,
+    #[serde(skip_deserializing, default)]
+    pub invalid: bool,
 }

 /// Common type representing both SQL statement params with or without value,
--- a/libs/compute_api/tests/cluster_spec.json
+++ b/libs/compute_api/tests/cluster_spec.json
@@ -76,7 +76,7 @@
            },
            {
                "name": "wal_level",
-                "value": "replica",
+                "value": "logical",
                "vartype": "enum"
            },
            {
--- a/libs/consumption_metrics/src/lib.rs
+++ b/libs/consumption_metrics/src/lib.rs
@@ -1,11 +1,11 @@
-//!
 //! Shared code for consumption metics collection
-//!
+#![deny(unsafe_code)]
+#![deny(clippy::undocumented_unsafe_blocks)]
 use chrono::{DateTime, Utc};
 use rand::Rng;
-use serde::Serialize;
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};

-#[derive(Serialize, Debug, Clone, Copy, Eq, PartialEq, Ord, PartialOrd)]
+#[derive(Serialize, serde::Deserialize, Debug, Clone, Copy, Eq, PartialEq, Ord, PartialOrd)]
 #[serde(tag = "type")]
 pub enum EventType {
    #[serde(rename = "absolute")]
@@ -27,7 +27,8 @@ impl EventType {
    }

    pub fn incremental_timerange(&self) -> Option<std::ops::Range<&DateTime<Utc>>> {
-        // these can most likely be thought of as Range or RangeFull
+        // these can most likely be thought of as Range or RangeFull, at least pageserver creates
+        // incremental ranges where the stop and next start are equal.
        use EventType::*;
        match self {
            Incremental {
@@ -41,15 +42,25 @@ impl EventType {
    pub fn is_incremental(&self) -> bool {
        matches!(self, EventType::Incremental { .. })
    }
+
+    /// Returns the absolute time, or for incremental ranges, the stop time.
+    pub fn recorded_at(&self) -> &DateTime<Utc> {
+        use EventType::*;
+
+        match self {
+            Absolute { time } => time,
+            Incremental { stop_time, .. } => stop_time,
+        }
+    }
 }

-#[derive(Serialize, Debug, Clone, Eq, PartialEq, Ord, PartialOrd)]
-pub struct Event<Extra> {
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Debug, Clone, Eq, PartialEq, Ord, PartialOrd)]
+pub struct Event<Extra, Metric> {
    #[serde(flatten)]
    #[serde(rename = "type")]
    pub kind: EventType,

-    pub metric: &'static str,
+    pub metric: Metric,
    pub idempotency_key: String,
    pub value: u64,

@@ -58,19 +69,45 @@ pub struct Event<Extra> {
 }

 pub fn idempotency_key(node_id: &str) -> String {
-    format!(
-        "{}-{}-{:04}",
-        Utc::now(),
-        node_id,
-        rand::thread_rng().gen_range(0..=9999)
-    )
+    IdempotencyKey::generate(node_id).to_string()
+}
+
+/// Downstream users will use these to detect upload retries.
+pub struct IdempotencyKey<'a> {
+    now: chrono::DateTime<Utc>,
+    node_id: &'a str,
+    nonce: u16,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Display for IdempotencyKey<'_> {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "{}-{}-{:04}", self.now, self.node_id, self.nonce)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'a> IdempotencyKey<'a> {
+    pub fn generate(node_id: &'a str) -> Self {
+        IdempotencyKey {
+            now: Utc::now(),
+            node_id,
+            nonce: rand::thread_rng().gen_range(0..=9999),
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn for_tests(now: DateTime<Utc>, node_id: &'a str, nonce: u16) -> Self {
+        IdempotencyKey {
+            now,
+            node_id,
+            nonce,
+        }
+    }
 }

 pub const CHUNK_SIZE: usize = 1000;

 // Just a wrapper around a slice of events
 // to serialize it as `{"events" : [ ] }
-#[derive(serde::Serialize)]
+#[derive(serde::Serialize, serde::Deserialize)]
 pub struct EventChunk<'a, T: Clone> {
    pub events: std::borrow::Cow<'a, [T]>,
 }
--- a/libs/metrics/src/lib.rs
+++ b/libs/metrics/src/lib.rs
@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@
 //! make sure that we use the same dep version everywhere.
 //! Otherwise, we might not see all metrics registered via
 //! a default registry.
+#![deny(clippy::undocumented_unsafe_blocks)]
 use once_cell::sync::Lazy;
 use prometheus::core::{AtomicU64, Collector, GenericGauge, GenericGaugeVec};
 pub use prometheus::opts;
@@ -89,14 +90,14 @@ pub const DISK_WRITE_SECONDS_BUCKETS: &[f64] = &[
    0.000_050, 0.000_100, 0.000_500, 0.001, 0.003, 0.005, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5,
 ];

-pub fn set_build_info_metric(revision: &str) {
+pub fn set_build_info_metric(revision: &str, build_tag: &str) {
    let metric = register_int_gauge_vec!(
        "libmetrics_build_info",
        "Build/version information",
-        &["revision"]
+        &["revision", "build_tag"]
    )
    .expect("Failed to register build info metric");
-    metric.with_label_values(&[revision]).set(1);
+    metric.with_label_values(&[revision, build_tag]).set(1);
 }

 // Records I/O stats in a "cross-platform" way.
--- a/libs/metrics/src/wrappers.rs
+++ b/libs/metrics/src/wrappers.rs
@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 use std::io::{Read, Result, Write};

-/// A wrapper for an object implementing [Read](std::io::Read)
+/// A wrapper for an object implementing [Read]
 /// which allows a closure to observe the amount of bytes read.
 /// This is useful in conjunction with metrics (e.g. [IntCounter](crate::IntCounter)).
 ///
@@ -51,17 +51,17 @@ impl<'a, T> CountedReader<'a, T> {
        }
    }

-    /// Get an immutable reference to the underlying [Read](std::io::Read) implementor
+    /// Get an immutable reference to the underlying [Read] implementor
    pub fn inner(&self) -> &T {
        &self.reader
    }

-    /// Get a mutable reference to the underlying [Read](std::io::Read) implementor
+    /// Get a mutable reference to the underlying [Read] implementor
    pub fn inner_mut(&mut self) -> &mut T {
        &mut self.reader
    }

-    /// Consume the wrapper and return the underlying [Read](std::io::Read) implementor
+    /// Consume the wrapper and return the underlying [Read] implementor
    pub fn into_inner(self) -> T {
        self.reader
    }
@@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ impl<T: Read> Read for CountedReader<'_, T> {
    }
 }

-/// A wrapper for an object implementing [Write](std::io::Write)
+/// A wrapper for an object implementing [Write]
 /// which allows a closure to observe the amount of bytes written.
 /// This is useful in conjunction with metrics (e.g. [IntCounter](crate::IntCounter)).
 ///
@@ -122,17 +122,17 @@ impl<'a, T> CountedWriter<'a, T> {
        }
    }

-    /// Get an immutable reference to the underlying [Write](std::io::Write) implementor
+    /// Get an immutable reference to the underlying [Write] implementor
    pub fn inner(&self) -> &T {
        &self.writer
    }

-    /// Get a mutable reference to the underlying [Write](std::io::Write) implementor
+    /// Get a mutable reference to the underlying [Write] implementor
    pub fn inner_mut(&mut self) -> &mut T {
        &mut self.writer
    }

-    /// Consume the wrapper and return the underlying [Write](std::io::Write) implementor
+    /// Consume the wrapper and return the underlying [Write] implementor
    pub fn into_inner(self) -> T {
        self.writer
    }
--- a/libs/pageserver_api/src/control_api.rs
+++ b/libs/pageserver_api/src/control_api.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+//! Types in this file are for pageserver's upward-facing API calls to the control plane,
+//! required for acquiring and validating tenant generation numbers.
+//!
+//! See docs/rfcs/025-generation-numbers.md
+
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+use utils::id::{NodeId, TenantId};
+
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize)]
+pub struct ReAttachRequest {
+    pub node_id: NodeId,
+}
+
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize)]
+pub struct ReAttachResponseTenant {
+    pub id: TenantId,
+    pub gen: u32,
+}
+
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize)]
+pub struct ReAttachResponse {
+    pub tenants: Vec<ReAttachResponseTenant>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize)]
+pub struct ValidateRequestTenant {
+    pub id: TenantId,
+    pub gen: u32,
+}
+
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize)]
+pub struct ValidateRequest {
+    pub tenants: Vec<ValidateRequestTenant>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize)]
+pub struct ValidateResponse {
+    pub tenants: Vec<ValidateResponseTenant>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize)]
+pub struct ValidateResponseTenant {
+    pub id: TenantId,
+    pub valid: bool,
+}
--- a/libs/pageserver_api/src/lib.rs
+++ b/libs/pageserver_api/src/lib.rs
@@ -1,6 +1,9 @@
+#![deny(unsafe_code)]
+#![deny(clippy::undocumented_unsafe_blocks)]
 use const_format::formatcp;

 /// Public API types
+pub mod control_api;
 pub mod models;
 pub mod reltag;

--- a/libs/pageserver_api/src/models.rs
+++ b/libs/pageserver_api/src/models.rs
@@ -6,10 +6,11 @@ use std::{

 use byteorder::{BigEndian, ReadBytesExt};
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use serde_with::{serde_as, DisplayFromStr};
+use serde_with::serde_as;
 use strum_macros;
 use utils::{
    completion,
+    generation::Generation,
    history_buffer::HistoryBufferWithDropCounter,
    id::{NodeId, TenantId, TimelineId},
    lsn::Lsn,
@@ -109,7 +110,6 @@ impl TenantState {
            // So, return `Maybe` while Attaching, making Console wait for the attach task to finish.
            Self::Attaching | Self::Activating(ActivatingFrom::Attaching) => Maybe,
            // tenant mgr startup distinguishes attaching from loading via marker file.
-            // If it's loading, there is no attach marker file, i.e., attach had finished in the past.
            Self::Loading | Self::Activating(ActivatingFrom::Loading) => Attached,
            // We only reach Active after successful load / attach.
            // So, call atttachment status Attached.
@@ -174,30 +174,35 @@ pub enum TimelineState {
    Broken { reason: String, backtrace: String },
 }

-#[serde_as]
 #[derive(Serialize, Deserialize)]
 pub struct TimelineCreateRequest {
-    #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
    pub new_timeline_id: TimelineId,
    #[serde(default)]
-    #[serde_as(as = "Option<DisplayFromStr>")]
    pub ancestor_timeline_id: Option<TimelineId>,
    #[serde(default)]
-    #[serde_as(as = "Option<DisplayFromStr>")]
    pub ancestor_start_lsn: Option<Lsn>,
    pub pg_version: Option<u32>,
 }

-#[serde_as]
 #[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Debug)]
 #[serde(deny_unknown_fields)]
 pub struct TenantCreateRequest {
-    #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
    pub new_tenant_id: TenantId,
+    #[serde(default)]
+    #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub generation: Option<u32>,
    #[serde(flatten)]
    pub config: TenantConfig, // as we have a flattened field, we should reject all unknown fields in it
 }

+#[derive(Deserialize, Debug)]
+#[serde(deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct TenantLoadRequest {
+    #[serde(default)]
+    #[serde(skip_serializing_if = "Option::is_none")]
+    pub generation: Option<u32>,
+}
+
 impl std::ops::Deref for TenantCreateRequest {
    type Target = TenantConfig;

@@ -206,6 +211,8 @@ impl std::ops::Deref for TenantCreateRequest {
    }
 }

+/// An alternative representation of `pageserver::tenant::TenantConf` with
+/// simpler types.
 #[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Debug, Default)]
 pub struct TenantConfig {
    pub checkpoint_distance: Option<u64>,
@@ -231,30 +238,59 @@ pub struct TenantConfig {
    pub gc_feedback: Option<bool>,
 }

-#[serde_as]
+/// A flattened analog of a `pagesever::tenant::LocationMode`, which
+/// lists out all possible states (and the virtual "Detached" state)
+/// in a flat form rather than using rust-style enums.
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Debug)]
+pub enum LocationConfigMode {
+    AttachedSingle,
+    AttachedMulti,
+    AttachedStale,
+    Secondary,
+    Detached,
+}
+
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Debug)]
+pub struct LocationConfigSecondary {
+    pub warm: bool,
+}
+
+/// An alternative representation of `pageserver::tenant::LocationConf`,
+/// for use in external-facing APIs.
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Debug)]
+pub struct LocationConfig {
+    pub mode: LocationConfigMode,
+    /// If attaching, in what generation?
+    #[serde(default)]
+    pub generation: Option<Generation>,
+    #[serde(default)]
+    pub secondary_conf: Option<LocationConfigSecondary>,
+
+    // If requesting mode `Secondary`, configuration for that.
+    // Custom storage configuration for the tenant, if any
+    pub tenant_conf: TenantConfig,
+}
+
 #[derive(Serialize, Deserialize)]
 #[serde(transparent)]
-pub struct TenantCreateResponse(#[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")] pub TenantId);
+pub struct TenantCreateResponse(pub TenantId);

 #[derive(Serialize)]
 pub struct StatusResponse {
    pub id: NodeId,
 }

-impl TenantCreateRequest {
-    pub fn new(new_tenant_id: TenantId) -> TenantCreateRequest {
-        TenantCreateRequest {
-            new_tenant_id,
-            config: TenantConfig::default(),
-        }
-    }
+#[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Debug)]
+#[serde(deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct TenantLocationConfigRequest {
+    pub tenant_id: TenantId,
+    #[serde(flatten)]
+    pub config: LocationConfig, // as we have a flattened field, we should reject all unknown fields in it
 }

-#[serde_as]
 #[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Debug)]
 #[serde(deny_unknown_fields)]
 pub struct TenantConfigRequest {
-    #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
    pub tenant_id: TenantId,
    #[serde(flatten)]
    pub config: TenantConfig, // as we have a flattened field, we should reject all unknown fields in it
@@ -293,9 +329,11 @@ impl TenantConfigRequest {
    }
 }

-#[derive(Debug, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+#[derive(Debug, Deserialize)]
 pub struct TenantAttachRequest {
    pub config: TenantAttachConfig,
+    #[serde(default)]
+    pub generation: Option<u32>,
 }

 /// Newtype to enforce deny_unknown_fields on TenantConfig for
@@ -324,10 +362,8 @@ pub enum TenantAttachmentStatus {
    Failed { reason: String },
 }

-#[serde_as]
 #[derive(Serialize, Deserialize, Clone)]
 pub struct TenantInfo {
-    #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
    pub id: TenantId,
    // NB: intentionally not part of OpenAPI, we don't want to commit to a specific set of TenantState's
    pub state: TenantState,
@@ -338,28 +374,24 @@ pub struct TenantInfo {
 }

 /// This represents the output of the "timeline_detail" and "timeline_list" API calls.
-#[serde_as]
 #[derive(Debug, Serialize, Deserialize, Clone)]
 pub struct TimelineInfo {
-    #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
    pub tenant_id: TenantId,
-    #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
    pub timeline_id: TimelineId,

-    #[serde_as(as = "Option<DisplayFromStr>")]
    pub ancestor_timeline_id: Option<TimelineId>,
-    #[serde_as(as = "Option<DisplayFromStr>")]
    pub ancestor_lsn: Option<Lsn>,
-    #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
    pub last_record_lsn: Lsn,
-    #[serde_as(as = "Option<DisplayFromStr>")]
    pub prev_record_lsn: Option<Lsn>,
-    #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
    pub latest_gc_cutoff_lsn: Lsn,
-    #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
    pub disk_consistent_lsn: Lsn,
-    #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
+
+    /// The LSN that we have succesfully uploaded to remote storage
    pub remote_consistent_lsn: Lsn,
+
+    /// The LSN that we are advertizing to safekeepers
+    pub remote_consistent_lsn_visible: Lsn,
+
    pub current_logical_size: Option<u64>, // is None when timeline is Unloaded
    /// Sum of the size of all layer files.
    /// If a layer is present in both local FS and S3, it counts only once.
@@ -369,13 +401,14 @@ pub struct TimelineInfo {
    pub timeline_dir_layer_file_size_sum: Option<u64>,

    pub wal_source_connstr: Option<String>,
-    #[serde_as(as = "Option<DisplayFromStr>")]
    pub last_received_msg_lsn: Option<Lsn>,
    /// the timestamp (in microseconds) of the last received message
    pub last_received_msg_ts: Option<u128>,
    pub pg_version: u32,

    pub state: TimelineState,
+
+    pub walreceiver_status: String,
 }

 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize)]
@@ -464,23 +497,13 @@ pub struct LayerAccessStats {
    pub residence_events_history: HistoryBufferWithDropCounter<LayerResidenceEvent, 16>,
 }

-#[serde_as]
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize)]
 #[serde(tag = "kind")]
 pub enum InMemoryLayerInfo {
-    Open {
-        #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
-        lsn_start: Lsn,
-    },
-    Frozen {
-        #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
-        lsn_start: Lsn,
-        #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
-        lsn_end: Lsn,
-    },
+    Open { lsn_start: Lsn },
+    Frozen { lsn_start: Lsn, lsn_end: Lsn },
 }

-#[serde_as]
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Serialize)]
 #[serde(tag = "kind")]
 pub enum HistoricLayerInfo {
@@ -488,9 +511,7 @@ pub enum HistoricLayerInfo {
        layer_file_name: String,
        layer_file_size: u64,

-        #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
        lsn_start: Lsn,
-        #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
        lsn_end: Lsn,
        remote: bool,
        access_stats: LayerAccessStats,
@@ -499,7 +520,6 @@ pub enum HistoricLayerInfo {
        layer_file_name: String,
        layer_file_size: u64,

-        #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
        lsn_start: Lsn,
        remote: bool,
        access_stats: LayerAccessStats,
--- a/libs/pageserver_api/src/reltag.rs
+++ b/libs/pageserver_api/src/reltag.rs
@@ -22,9 +22,9 @@ use postgres_ffi::Oid;
 /// [See more related comments here](https:///github.com/postgres/postgres/blob/99c5852e20a0987eca1c38ba0c09329d4076b6a0/src/include/storage/relfilenode.h#L57).
 ///
 // FIXME: should move 'forknum' as last field to keep this consistent with Postgres.
-// Then we could replace the custo Ord and PartialOrd implementations below with
-// deriving them.
-#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Clone, Copy, Serialize, Deserialize)]
+// Then we could replace the custom Ord and PartialOrd implementations below with
+// deriving them. This will require changes in walredoproc.c.
+#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Clone, Copy, Serialize)]
 pub struct RelTag {
    pub forknum: u8,
    pub spcnode: Oid,
@@ -40,21 +40,9 @@ impl PartialOrd for RelTag {

 impl Ord for RelTag {
    fn cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Ordering {
-        let mut cmp = self.spcnode.cmp(&other.spcnode);
-        if cmp != Ordering::Equal {
-            return cmp;
-        }
-        cmp = self.dbnode.cmp(&other.dbnode);
-        if cmp != Ordering::Equal {
-            return cmp;
-        }
-        cmp = self.relnode.cmp(&other.relnode);
-        if cmp != Ordering::Equal {
-            return cmp;
-        }
-        cmp = self.forknum.cmp(&other.forknum);
-
-        cmp
+        // Custom ordering where we put forknum to the end of the list
+        let other_tup = (other.spcnode, other.dbnode, other.relnode, other.forknum);
+        (self.spcnode, self.dbnode, self.relnode, self.forknum).cmp(&other_tup)
    }
 }

--- a/libs/postgres_backend/src/lib.rs
+++ b/libs/postgres_backend/src/lib.rs
@@ -2,6 +2,8 @@
 //! To use, create PostgresBackend and run() it, passing the Handler
 //! implementation determining how to process the queries. Currently its API
 //! is rather narrow, but we can extend it once required.
+#![deny(unsafe_code)]
+#![deny(clippy::undocumented_unsafe_blocks)]
 use anyhow::Context;
 use bytes::Bytes;
 use futures::pin_mut;
@@ -15,12 +17,12 @@ use std::{fmt, io};
 use std::{future::Future, str::FromStr};
 use tokio::io::{AsyncRead, AsyncWrite};
 use tokio_rustls::TlsAcceptor;
-use tracing::{debug, error, info, trace};
+use tracing::{debug, error, info, trace, warn};

 use pq_proto::framed::{ConnectionError, Framed, FramedReader, FramedWriter};
 use pq_proto::{
-    BeMessage, FeMessage, FeStartupPacket, ProtocolError, SQLSTATE_INTERNAL_ERROR,
-    SQLSTATE_SUCCESSFUL_COMPLETION,
+    BeMessage, FeMessage, FeStartupPacket, ProtocolError, SQLSTATE_ADMIN_SHUTDOWN,
+    SQLSTATE_INTERNAL_ERROR, SQLSTATE_SUCCESSFUL_COMPLETION,
 };

 /// An error, occurred during query processing:
@@ -30,6 +32,14 @@ pub enum QueryError {
    /// The connection was lost while processing the query.
    #[error(transparent)]
    Disconnected(#[from] ConnectionError),
+    /// We were instructed to shutdown while processing the query
+    #[error("Shutting down")]
+    Shutdown,
+    /// Authentication failure
+    #[error("Unauthorized: {0}")]
+    Unauthorized(std::borrow::Cow<'static, str>),
+    #[error("Simulated Connection Error")]
+    SimulatedConnectionError,
    /// Some other error
    #[error(transparent)]
    Other(#[from] anyhow::Error),
@@ -44,7 +54,9 @@ impl From<io::Error> for QueryError {
 impl QueryError {
    pub fn pg_error_code(&self) -> &'static [u8; 5] {
        match self {
-            Self::Disconnected(_) => b"08006",         // connection failure
+            Self::Disconnected(_) | Self::SimulatedConnectionError => b"08006", // connection failure
+            Self::Shutdown => SQLSTATE_ADMIN_SHUTDOWN,
+            Self::Unauthorized(_) => SQLSTATE_INTERNAL_ERROR,
            Self::Other(_) => SQLSTATE_INTERNAL_ERROR, // internal error
        }
    }
@@ -238,6 +250,7 @@ impl<IO: AsyncRead + AsyncWrite + Unpin> MaybeWriteOnly<IO> {
        }
    }

+    /// Cancellation safe as long as the underlying IO is cancellation safe.
    async fn shutdown(&mut self) -> io::Result<()> {
        match self {
            MaybeWriteOnly::Full(framed) => framed.shutdown().await,
@@ -389,14 +402,37 @@ impl<IO: AsyncRead + AsyncWrite + Unpin> PostgresBackend<IO> {
        shutdown_watcher: F,
    ) -> Result<(), QueryError>
    where
-        F: Fn() -> S,
+        F: Fn() -> S + Clone,
        S: Future,
    {
-        let ret = self.run_message_loop(handler, shutdown_watcher).await;
-        // socket might be already closed, e.g. if previously received error,
-        // so ignore result.
-        self.framed.shutdown().await.ok();
-        ret
+        let ret = self
+            .run_message_loop(handler, shutdown_watcher.clone())
+            .await;
+
+        tokio::select! {
+            _ = shutdown_watcher() => {
+                // do nothing; we most likely got already stopped by shutdown and will log it next.
+            }
+            _ = self.framed.shutdown() => {
+                // socket might be already closed, e.g. if previously received error,
+                // so ignore result.
+            },
+        }
+
+        match ret {
+            Ok(()) => Ok(()),
+            Err(QueryError::Shutdown) => {
+                info!("Stopped due to shutdown");
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            Err(QueryError::Disconnected(e)) => {
+                info!("Disconnected ({e:#})");
+                // Disconnection is not an error: we just use it that way internally to drop
+                // out of loops.
+                Ok(())
+            }
+            e => e,
+        }
    }

    async fn run_message_loop<F, S>(
@@ -416,15 +452,11 @@ impl<IO: AsyncRead + AsyncWrite + Unpin> PostgresBackend<IO> {
            _ = shutdown_watcher() => {
                // We were requested to shut down.
                tracing::info!("shutdown request received during handshake");
-                return Ok(())
+                return Err(QueryError::Shutdown)
            },

-            result = self.handshake(handler) => {
-                // Handshake complete.
-                result?;
-                if self.state == ProtoState::Closed {
-                    return Ok(()); // EOF during handshake
-                }
+            handshake_r = self.handshake(handler) => {
+                handshake_r?;
            }
        );

@@ -435,17 +467,34 @@ impl<IO: AsyncRead + AsyncWrite + Unpin> PostgresBackend<IO> {
            _ = shutdown_watcher() => {
                // We were requested to shut down.
                tracing::info!("shutdown request received in run_message_loop");
-                Ok(None)
+                return Err(QueryError::Shutdown)
            },
            msg = self.read_message() => { msg },
        )? {
            trace!("got message {:?}", msg);

            let result = self.process_message(handler, msg, &mut query_string).await;
-            self.flush().await?;
+            tokio::select!(
+                biased;
+                _ = shutdown_watcher() => {
+                    // We were requested to shut down.
+                    tracing::info!("shutdown request received during response flush");
+
+                    // If we exited process_message with a shutdown error, there may be
+                    // some valid response content on in our transmit buffer: permit sending
+                    // this within a short timeout.  This is a best effort thing so we don't
+                    // care about the result.
+                    tokio::time::timeout(std::time::Duration::from_millis(500), self.flush()).await.ok();
+
+                    return Err(QueryError::Shutdown)
+                },
+                flush_r = self.flush() => {
+                    flush_r?;
+                }
+            );
+
            match result? {
                ProcessMsgResult::Continue => {
-                    self.flush().await?;
                    continue;
                }
                ProcessMsgResult::Break => break,
@@ -550,7 +599,9 @@ impl<IO: AsyncRead + AsyncWrite + Unpin> PostgresBackend<IO> {
                        self.peer_addr
                    );
                    self.state = ProtoState::Closed;
-                    return Ok(());
+                    return Err(QueryError::Disconnected(ConnectionError::Protocol(
+                        ProtocolError::Protocol("EOF during handshake".to_string()),
+                    )));
                }
            }
        }
@@ -565,7 +616,7 @@ impl<IO: AsyncRead + AsyncWrite + Unpin> PostgresBackend<IO> {

                    if let Err(e) = handler.check_auth_jwt(self, jwt_response) {
                        self.write_message_noflush(&BeMessage::ErrorResponse(
-                            &e.to_string(),
+                            &short_error(&e),
                            Some(e.pg_error_code()),
                        ))?;
                        return Err(e);
@@ -589,7 +640,9 @@ impl<IO: AsyncRead + AsyncWrite + Unpin> PostgresBackend<IO> {
                        self.peer_addr
                    );
                    self.state = ProtoState::Closed;
-                    return Ok(());
+                    return Err(QueryError::Disconnected(ConnectionError::Protocol(
+                        ProtocolError::Protocol("EOF during auth".to_string()),
+                    )));
                }
            }
        }
@@ -683,12 +736,20 @@ impl<IO: AsyncRead + AsyncWrite + Unpin> PostgresBackend<IO> {

                trace!("got query {query_string:?}");
                if let Err(e) = handler.process_query(self, query_string).await {
-                    log_query_error(query_string, &e);
-                    let short_error = short_error(&e);
-                    self.write_message_noflush(&BeMessage::ErrorResponse(
-                        &short_error,
-                        Some(e.pg_error_code()),
-                    ))?;
+                    match e {
+                        QueryError::Shutdown => return Ok(ProcessMsgResult::Break),
+                        QueryError::SimulatedConnectionError => {
+                            return Err(QueryError::SimulatedConnectionError)
+                        }
+                        e => {
+                            log_query_error(query_string, &e);
+                            let short_error = short_error(&e);
+                            self.write_message_noflush(&BeMessage::ErrorResponse(
+                                &short_error,
+                                Some(e.pg_error_code()),
+                            ))?;
+                        }
+                    }
                }
                self.write_message_noflush(&BeMessage::ReadyForQuery)?;
            }
@@ -913,6 +974,9 @@ impl<'a, IO: AsyncRead + AsyncWrite + Unpin> AsyncWrite for CopyDataWriter<'a, I
 pub fn short_error(e: &QueryError) -> String {
    match e {
        QueryError::Disconnected(connection_error) => connection_error.to_string(),
+        QueryError::Shutdown => "shutdown".to_string(),
+        QueryError::Unauthorized(_e) => "JWT authentication error".to_string(),
+        QueryError::SimulatedConnectionError => "simulated connection error".to_string(),
        QueryError::Other(e) => format!("{e:#}"),
    }
 }
@@ -929,6 +993,15 @@ fn log_query_error(query: &str, e: &QueryError) {
        QueryError::Disconnected(other_connection_error) => {
            error!("query handler for '{query}' failed with connection error: {other_connection_error:?}")
        }
+        QueryError::SimulatedConnectionError => {
+            error!("query handler for query '{query}' failed due to a simulated connection error")
+        }
+        QueryError::Shutdown => {
+            info!("query handler for '{query}' cancelled during tenant shutdown")
+        }
+        QueryError::Unauthorized(e) => {
+            warn!("query handler for '{query}' failed with authentication error: {e}");
+        }
        QueryError::Other(e) => {
            error!("query handler for '{query}' failed: {e:?}");
        }
--- a/libs/postgres_connection/src/lib.rs
+++ b/libs/postgres_connection/src/lib.rs
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+#![deny(unsafe_code)]
+#![deny(clippy::undocumented_unsafe_blocks)]
 use anyhow::{bail, Context};
 use itertools::Itertools;
 use std::borrow::Cow;
--- a/libs/postgres_ffi/README.md
+++ b/libs/postgres_ffi/README.md
@@ -10,9 +10,11 @@ should be auto-generated too, but that's a TODO.
 The PostgreSQL on-disk file format is not portable across different
 CPU architectures and operating systems. It is also subject to change
 in each major PostgreSQL version. Currently, this module supports
-PostgreSQL v14 and v15: bindings and code that depends on them are version-specific.
-This code is organized in modules: `postgres_ffi::v14` and `postgres_ffi::v15`
-Version independend code is explicitly exported into shared `postgres_ffi`.
+PostgreSQL v14, v15 and v16: bindings and code that depends on them are
+version-specific.
+This code is organized in modules `postgres_ffi::v14`, `postgres_ffi::v15` and
+`postgres_ffi::v16`. Version independent code is explicitly exported into
+shared `postgres_ffi`.


 TODO: Currently, there is also some code that deals with WAL records
--- a/libs/postgres_ffi/build.rs
+++ b/libs/postgres_ffi/build.rs
@@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ fn main() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
        PathBuf::from("pg_install")
    };

-    for pg_version in &["v14", "v15"] {
+    for pg_version in &["v14", "v15", "v16"] {
        let mut pg_install_dir_versioned = pg_install_dir.join(pg_version);
        if pg_install_dir_versioned.is_relative() {
            let cwd = env::current_dir().context("Failed to get current_dir")?;
@@ -125,6 +125,7 @@ fn main() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
            .allowlist_var("PG_CONTROLFILEDATA_OFFSETOF_CRC")
            .allowlist_type("PageHeaderData")
            .allowlist_type("DBState")
+            .allowlist_type("RelMapFile")
            // Because structs are used for serialization, tell bindgen to emit
            // explicit padding fields.
            .explicit_padding(true)
--- a/libs/postgres_ffi/src/lib.rs
+++ b/libs/postgres_ffi/src/lib.rs
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@
 // modules included with the postgres_ffi macro depend on the types of the specific version's
 // types, and trigger a too eager lint.
 #![allow(clippy::duplicate_mod)]
+#![deny(clippy::undocumented_unsafe_blocks)]

 use bytes::Bytes;
 use utils::bin_ser::SerializeError;
@@ -20,6 +21,7 @@ macro_rules! postgres_ffi {
            pub mod bindings {
                // bindgen generates bindings for a lot of stuff we don't need
                #![allow(dead_code)]
+                #![allow(clippy::undocumented_unsafe_blocks)]

                use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
                include!(concat!(
@@ -51,11 +53,59 @@ macro_rules! for_all_postgres_versions {
    ($macro:tt) => {
        $macro!(v14);
        $macro!(v15);
+        $macro!(v16);
    };
 }

 for_all_postgres_versions! { postgres_ffi }

+/// dispatch_pgversion
+///
+/// Run a code block in a context where the postgres_ffi bindings for a
+/// specific (supported) PostgreSQL version are `use`-ed in scope under the pgv
+/// identifier.
+/// If the provided pg_version is not supported, we panic!(), unless the
+/// optional third argument was provided (in which case that code will provide
+/// the default handling instead).
+///
+/// Use like
+///
+/// dispatch_pgversion!(my_pgversion, { pgv::constants::XLOG_DBASE_CREATE })
+/// dispatch_pgversion!(my_pgversion, pgv::constants::XLOG_DBASE_CREATE)
+///
+/// Other uses are for macro-internal purposes only and strictly unsupported.
+///
+#[macro_export]
+macro_rules! dispatch_pgversion {
+    ($version:expr, $code:expr) => {
+        dispatch_pgversion!($version, $code, panic!("Unknown PostgreSQL version {}", $version))
+    };
+    ($version:expr, $code:expr, $invalid_pgver_handling:expr) => {
+        dispatch_pgversion!(
+            $version => $code,
+            default = $invalid_pgver_handling,
+            pgversions = [
+                14 : v14,
+                15 : v15,
+                16 : v16,
+            ]
+        )
+    };
+    ($pgversion:expr => $code:expr,
+     default = $default:expr,
+     pgversions = [$($sv:literal : $vsv:ident),+ $(,)?]) => {
+        match ($pgversion) {
+            $($sv => {
+                use $crate::$vsv as pgv;
+                $code
+            },)+
+            _ => {
+                $default
+            }
+        }
+    };
+}
+
 pub mod pg_constants;
 pub mod relfile_utils;

@@ -83,6 +133,7 @@ pub const MAX_SEND_SIZE: usize = XLOG_BLCKSZ * 16;

 // Export some version independent functions that are used outside of this mod
 pub use v14::xlog_utils::encode_logical_message;
+pub use v14::xlog_utils::from_pg_timestamp;
 pub use v14::xlog_utils::get_current_timestamp;
 pub use v14::xlog_utils::to_pg_timestamp;
 pub use v14::xlog_utils::XLogFileName;
@@ -90,13 +141,7 @@ pub use v14::xlog_utils::XLogFileName;
 pub use v14::bindings::DBState_DB_SHUTDOWNED;

 pub fn bkpimage_is_compressed(bimg_info: u8, version: u32) -> anyhow::Result<bool> {
-    match version {
-        14 => Ok(bimg_info & v14::bindings::BKPIMAGE_IS_COMPRESSED != 0),
-        15 => Ok(bimg_info & v15::bindings::BKPIMAGE_COMPRESS_PGLZ != 0
-            || bimg_info & v15::bindings::BKPIMAGE_COMPRESS_LZ4 != 0
-            || bimg_info & v15::bindings::BKPIMAGE_COMPRESS_ZSTD != 0),
-        _ => anyhow::bail!("Unknown version {}", version),
-    }
+    dispatch_pgversion!(version, Ok(pgv::bindings::bkpimg_is_compressed(bimg_info)))
 }

 pub fn generate_wal_segment(
@@ -107,11 +152,11 @@ pub fn generate_wal_segment(
 ) -> Result<Bytes, SerializeError> {
    assert_eq!(segno, lsn.segment_number(WAL_SEGMENT_SIZE));

-    match pg_version {
-        14 => v14::xlog_utils::generate_wal_segment(segno, system_id, lsn),
-        15 => v15::xlog_utils::generate_wal_segment(segno, system_id, lsn),
-        _ => Err(SerializeError::BadInput),
-    }
+    dispatch_pgversion!(
+        pg_version,
+        pgv::xlog_utils::generate_wal_segment(segno, system_id, lsn),
+        Err(SerializeError::BadInput)
+    )
 }

 pub fn generate_pg_control(
@@ -120,11 +165,11 @@ pub fn generate_pg_control(
    lsn: Lsn,
    pg_version: u32,
 ) -> anyhow::Result<(Bytes, u64)> {
-    match pg_version {
-        14 => v14::xlog_utils::generate_pg_control(pg_control_bytes, checkpoint_bytes, lsn),
-        15 => v15::xlog_utils::generate_pg_control(pg_control_bytes, checkpoint_bytes, lsn),
-        _ => anyhow::bail!("Unknown version {}", pg_version),
-    }
+    dispatch_pgversion!(
+        pg_version,
+        pgv::xlog_utils::generate_pg_control(pg_control_bytes, checkpoint_bytes, lsn),
+        anyhow::bail!("Unknown version {}", pg_version)
+    )
 }

 // PG timeline is always 1, changing it doesn't have any useful meaning in Neon.
@@ -196,8 +241,6 @@ pub fn fsm_logical_to_physical(addr: BlockNumber) -> BlockNumber {
 }

 pub mod waldecoder {
-
-    use crate::{v14, v15};
    use bytes::{Buf, Bytes, BytesMut};
    use std::num::NonZeroU32;
    use thiserror::Error;
@@ -248,22 +291,17 @@ pub mod waldecoder {
        }

        pub fn poll_decode(&mut self) -> Result<Option<(Lsn, Bytes)>, WalDecodeError> {
-            match self.pg_version {
-                // This is a trick to support both versions simultaneously.
-                // See WalStreamDecoderHandler comments.
-                14 => {
-                    use self::v14::waldecoder_handler::WalStreamDecoderHandler;
+            dispatch_pgversion!(
+                self.pg_version,
+                {
+                    use pgv::waldecoder_handler::WalStreamDecoderHandler;
                    self.poll_decode_internal()
-                }
-                15 => {
-                    use self::v15::waldecoder_handler::WalStreamDecoderHandler;
-                    self.poll_decode_internal()
-                }
-                _ => Err(WalDecodeError {
+                },
+                Err(WalDecodeError {
                    msg: format!("Unknown version {}", self.pg_version),
                    lsn: self.lsn,
-                }),
-            }
+                })
+            )
        }
    }
 }
--- a/libs/postgres_ffi/src/pg_constants.rs
+++ b/libs/postgres_ffi/src/pg_constants.rs
@@ -137,9 +137,12 @@ pub const XLOG_HEAP_INSERT: u8 = 0x00;
 pub const XLOG_HEAP_DELETE: u8 = 0x10;
 pub const XLOG_HEAP_UPDATE: u8 = 0x20;
 pub const XLOG_HEAP_HOT_UPDATE: u8 = 0x40;
+pub const XLOG_HEAP_LOCK: u8 = 0x60;
 pub const XLOG_HEAP_INIT_PAGE: u8 = 0x80;
 pub const XLOG_HEAP2_VISIBLE: u8 = 0x40;
 pub const XLOG_HEAP2_MULTI_INSERT: u8 = 0x50;
+pub const XLOG_HEAP2_LOCK_UPDATED: u8 = 0x60;
+pub const XLH_LOCK_ALL_FROZEN_CLEARED: u8 = 0x01;
 pub const XLH_INSERT_ALL_FROZEN_SET: u8 = (1 << 5) as u8;
 pub const XLH_INSERT_ALL_VISIBLE_CLEARED: u8 = (1 << 0) as u8;
 pub const XLH_UPDATE_OLD_ALL_VISIBLE_CLEARED: u8 = (1 << 0) as u8;
@@ -163,6 +166,20 @@ pub const RM_HEAP2_ID: u8 = 9;
 pub const RM_HEAP_ID: u8 = 10;
 pub const RM_LOGICALMSG_ID: u8 = 21;

+// from neon_rmgr.h
+pub const RM_NEON_ID: u8 = 134;
+
+pub const XLOG_NEON_HEAP_INIT_PAGE: u8 = 0x80;
+
+pub const XLOG_NEON_HEAP_INSERT: u8 = 0x00;
+pub const XLOG_NEON_HEAP_DELETE: u8 = 0x10;
+pub const XLOG_NEON_HEAP_UPDATE: u8 = 0x20;
+pub const XLOG_NEON_HEAP_HOT_UPDATE: u8 = 0x30;
+pub const XLOG_NEON_HEAP_LOCK: u8 = 0x40;
+pub const XLOG_NEON_HEAP_MULTI_INSERT: u8 = 0x50;
+
+pub const XLOG_NEON_HEAP_VISIBLE: u8 = 0x40;
+
 // from xlogreader.h
 pub const XLR_INFO_MASK: u8 = 0x0F;
 pub const XLR_RMGR_INFO_MASK: u8 = 0xF0;
@@ -203,6 +220,10 @@ pub const XLOG_CHECKPOINT_ONLINE: u8 = 0x10;
 pub const XLP_FIRST_IS_CONTRECORD: u16 = 0x0001;
 pub const XLP_LONG_HEADER: u16 = 0x0002;

+/* From replication/slot.h */
+pub const REPL_SLOT_ON_DISK_OFFSETOF_RESTART_LSN: usize = 4*4  /* offset of `slotdata` in ReplicationSlotOnDisk  */
+   + 64 /* NameData */  + 4*4;
+
 /* From fsm_internals.h */
 const FSM_NODES_PER_PAGE: usize = BLCKSZ as usize - SIZEOF_PAGE_HEADER_DATA - 4;
 const FSM_NON_LEAF_NODES_PER_PAGE: usize = BLCKSZ as usize / 2 - 1;
--- a/libs/postgres_ffi/src/pg_constants_v14.rs
+++ b/libs/postgres_ffi/src/pg_constants_v14.rs
@@ -3,3 +3,8 @@ pub const XLOG_DBASE_DROP: u8 = 0x10;

 pub const BKPIMAGE_IS_COMPRESSED: u8 = 0x02; /* page image is compressed */
 pub const BKPIMAGE_APPLY: u8 = 0x04; /* page image should be restored during replay */
+pub const SIZEOF_RELMAPFILE: usize = 512; /* sizeof(RelMapFile) in relmapper.c */
+
+pub fn bkpimg_is_compressed(bimg_info: u8) -> bool {
+    (bimg_info & BKPIMAGE_IS_COMPRESSED) != 0
+}
--- a/libs/postgres_ffi/src/pg_constants_v15.rs
+++ b/libs/postgres_ffi/src/pg_constants_v15.rs
@@ -1,10 +1,18 @@
 pub const XACT_XINFO_HAS_DROPPED_STATS: u32 = 1u32 << 8;

 pub const XLOG_DBASE_CREATE_FILE_COPY: u8 = 0x00;
-pub const XLOG_DBASE_CREATE_WAL_LOG: u8 = 0x00;
+pub const XLOG_DBASE_CREATE_WAL_LOG: u8 = 0x10;
 pub const XLOG_DBASE_DROP: u8 = 0x20;

 pub const BKPIMAGE_APPLY: u8 = 0x02; /* page image should be restored during replay */
 pub const BKPIMAGE_COMPRESS_PGLZ: u8 = 0x04; /* page image is compressed */
 pub const BKPIMAGE_COMPRESS_LZ4: u8 = 0x08; /* page image is compressed */
 pub const BKPIMAGE_COMPRESS_ZSTD: u8 = 0x10; /* page image is compressed */
+
+pub const SIZEOF_RELMAPFILE: usize = 512; /* sizeof(RelMapFile) in relmapper.c */
+
+pub fn bkpimg_is_compressed(bimg_info: u8) -> bool {
+    const ANY_COMPRESS_FLAG: u8 = BKPIMAGE_COMPRESS_PGLZ | BKPIMAGE_COMPRESS_LZ4 | BKPIMAGE_COMPRESS_ZSTD;
+
+    (bimg_info & ANY_COMPRESS_FLAG) != 0
+}
--- a/libs/postgres_ffi/src/pg_constants_v16.rs
+++ b/libs/postgres_ffi/src/pg_constants_v16.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+pub const XACT_XINFO_HAS_DROPPED_STATS: u32 = 1u32 << 8;
+
+pub const XLOG_DBASE_CREATE_FILE_COPY: u8 = 0x00;
+pub const XLOG_DBASE_CREATE_WAL_LOG: u8 = 0x10;
+pub const XLOG_DBASE_DROP: u8 = 0x20;
+
+pub const BKPIMAGE_APPLY: u8 = 0x02; /* page image should be restored during replay */
+pub const BKPIMAGE_COMPRESS_PGLZ: u8 = 0x04; /* page image is compressed */
+pub const BKPIMAGE_COMPRESS_LZ4: u8 = 0x08; /* page image is compressed */
+pub const BKPIMAGE_COMPRESS_ZSTD: u8 = 0x10; /* page image is compressed */
+
+pub const SIZEOF_RELMAPFILE: usize = 524; /* sizeof(RelMapFile) in relmapper.c */
+
+pub fn bkpimg_is_compressed(bimg_info: u8) -> bool {
+    const ANY_COMPRESS_FLAG: u8 = BKPIMAGE_COMPRESS_PGLZ | BKPIMAGE_COMPRESS_LZ4 | BKPIMAGE_COMPRESS_ZSTD;
+
+    (bimg_info & ANY_COMPRESS_FLAG) != 0
+}
--- a/libs/postgres_ffi/src/xlog_utils.rs
+++ b/libs/postgres_ffi/src/xlog_utils.rs
@@ -136,21 +136,42 @@ pub fn get_current_timestamp() -> TimestampTz {
    to_pg_timestamp(SystemTime::now())
 }

-pub fn to_pg_timestamp(time: SystemTime) -> TimestampTz {
-    const UNIX_EPOCH_JDATE: u64 = 2440588; /* == date2j(1970, 1, 1) */
-    const POSTGRES_EPOCH_JDATE: u64 = 2451545; /* == date2j(2000, 1, 1) */
+// Module to reduce the scope of the constants
+mod timestamp_conversions {
+    use std::time::Duration;
+
+    use super::*;
+
+    const UNIX_EPOCH_JDATE: u64 = 2440588; // == date2j(1970, 1, 1)
+    const POSTGRES_EPOCH_JDATE: u64 = 2451545; // == date2j(2000, 1, 1)
    const SECS_PER_DAY: u64 = 86400;
    const USECS_PER_SEC: u64 = 1000000;
-    match time.duration_since(SystemTime::UNIX_EPOCH) {
-        Ok(n) => {
-            ((n.as_secs() - ((POSTGRES_EPOCH_JDATE - UNIX_EPOCH_JDATE) * SECS_PER_DAY))
-                * USECS_PER_SEC
-                + n.subsec_micros() as u64) as i64
+    const SECS_DIFF_UNIX_TO_POSTGRES_EPOCH: u64 =
+        (POSTGRES_EPOCH_JDATE - UNIX_EPOCH_JDATE) * SECS_PER_DAY;
+
+    pub fn to_pg_timestamp(time: SystemTime) -> TimestampTz {
+        match time.duration_since(SystemTime::UNIX_EPOCH) {
+            Ok(n) => {
+                ((n.as_secs() - SECS_DIFF_UNIX_TO_POSTGRES_EPOCH) * USECS_PER_SEC
+                    + n.subsec_micros() as u64) as i64
+            }
+            Err(_) => panic!("SystemTime before UNIX EPOCH!"),
        }
-        Err(_) => panic!("SystemTime before UNIX EPOCH!"),
+    }
+
+    pub fn from_pg_timestamp(time: TimestampTz) -> SystemTime {
+        let time: u64 = time
+            .try_into()
+            .expect("timestamp before millenium (postgres epoch)");
+        let since_unix_epoch = time + SECS_DIFF_UNIX_TO_POSTGRES_EPOCH * USECS_PER_SEC;
+        SystemTime::UNIX_EPOCH
+            .checked_add(Duration::from_micros(since_unix_epoch))
+            .expect("SystemTime overflow")
    }
 }

+pub use timestamp_conversions::{from_pg_timestamp, to_pg_timestamp};
+
 // Returns (aligned) end_lsn of the last record in data_dir with WAL segments.
 // start_lsn must point to some previously known record boundary (beginning of
 // the next record). If no valid record after is found, start_lsn is returned
@@ -481,4 +502,24 @@ pub fn encode_logical_message(prefix: &str, message: &str) -> Vec<u8> {
    wal
 }

-// If you need to craft WAL and write tests for this module, put it at wal_craft crate.
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_ts_conversion() {
+        let now = SystemTime::now();
+        let round_trip = from_pg_timestamp(to_pg_timestamp(now));
+
+        let now_since = now.duration_since(SystemTime::UNIX_EPOCH).unwrap();
+        let round_trip_since = round_trip.duration_since(SystemTime::UNIX_EPOCH).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(now_since.as_micros(), round_trip_since.as_micros());
+
+        let now_pg = get_current_timestamp();
+        let round_trip_pg = to_pg_timestamp(from_pg_timestamp(now_pg));
+
+        assert_eq!(now_pg, round_trip_pg);
+    }
+
+    // If you need to craft WAL and write tests for this module, put it at wal_craft crate.
+}
--- a/libs/postgres_ffi/wal_craft/Cargo.toml
+++ b/libs/postgres_ffi/wal_craft/Cargo.toml
@@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ log.workspace = true
 once_cell.workspace = true
 postgres.workspace = true
 postgres_ffi.workspace = true
-tempfile.workspace = true
+camino-tempfile.workspace = true

 workspace_hack.workspace = true

--- a/libs/postgres_ffi/wal_craft/src/lib.rs
+++ b/libs/postgres_ffi/wal_craft/src/lib.rs
@@ -1,4 +1,5 @@
 use anyhow::{bail, ensure};
+use camino_tempfile::{tempdir, Utf8TempDir};
 use log::*;
 use postgres::types::PgLsn;
 use postgres::Client;
@@ -8,12 +9,12 @@ use std::cmp::Ordering;
 use std::path::{Path, PathBuf};
 use std::process::Command;
 use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
-use tempfile::{tempdir, TempDir};

 macro_rules! xlog_utils_test {
    ($version:ident) => {
        #[path = "."]
        mod $version {
+            #[allow(unused_imports)]
            pub use postgres_ffi::$version::wal_craft_test_export::*;
            #[allow(clippy::duplicate_mod)]
            #[cfg(test)]
@@ -33,7 +34,7 @@ pub struct Conf {

 pub struct PostgresServer {
    process: std::process::Child,
-    _unix_socket_dir: TempDir,
+    _unix_socket_dir: Utf8TempDir,
    client_config: postgres::Config,
 }

@@ -49,9 +50,9 @@ impl Conf {
    pub fn pg_distrib_dir(&self) -> anyhow::Result<PathBuf> {
        let path = self.pg_distrib_dir.clone();

+        #[allow(clippy::manual_range_patterns)]
        match self.pg_version {
-            14 => Ok(path.join(format!("v{}", self.pg_version))),
-            15 => Ok(path.join(format!("v{}", self.pg_version))),
+            14 | 15 | 16 => Ok(path.join(format!("v{}", self.pg_version))),
            _ => bail!("Unsupported postgres version: {}", self.pg_version),
        }
    }
@@ -250,11 +251,18 @@ fn craft_internal<C: postgres::GenericClient>(
    let (mut intermediate_lsns, last_lsn) = f(client, initial_lsn)?;
    let last_lsn = match last_lsn {
        None => client.pg_current_wal_insert_lsn()?,
-        Some(last_lsn) => match last_lsn.cmp(&client.pg_current_wal_insert_lsn()?) {
-            Ordering::Less => bail!("Some records were inserted after the crafted WAL"),
-            Ordering::Equal => last_lsn,
-            Ordering::Greater => bail!("Reported LSN is greater than insert_lsn"),
-        },
+        Some(last_lsn) => {
+            let insert_lsn = client.pg_current_wal_insert_lsn()?;
+            match last_lsn.cmp(&insert_lsn) {
+                Ordering::Less => bail!(
+                    "Some records were inserted after the crafted WAL: {} vs {}",
+                    last_lsn,
+                    insert_lsn
+                ),
+                Ordering::Equal => last_lsn,
+                Ordering::Greater => bail!("Reported LSN is greater than insert_lsn"),
+            }
+        }
    };
    if !intermediate_lsns.starts_with(&[initial_lsn]) {
        intermediate_lsns.insert(0, initial_lsn);
@@ -363,8 +371,9 @@ impl Crafter for LastWalRecordXlogSwitchEndsOnPageBoundary {
        );
        ensure!(
            u64::from(after_xlog_switch) as usize % XLOG_BLCKSZ == XLOG_SIZE_OF_XLOG_SHORT_PHD,
-            "XLOG_SWITCH message ended not on page boundary: {}",
-            after_xlog_switch
+            "XLOG_SWITCH message ended not on page boundary: {}, offset = {}",
+            after_xlog_switch,
+            u64::from(after_xlog_switch) as usize % XLOG_BLCKSZ
        );
        Ok((vec![before_xlog_switch, after_xlog_switch], next_segment))
    }
--- a/libs/pq_proto/src/framed.rs
+++ b/libs/pq_proto/src/framed.rs
@@ -214,27 +214,24 @@ where
    }
 }

+/// Cancellation safe as long as the AsyncWrite is cancellation safe.
 async fn flush<S: AsyncWrite + Unpin>(
    stream: &mut S,
    write_buf: &mut BytesMut,
 ) -> Result<(), io::Error> {
    while write_buf.has_remaining() {
-        let bytes_written = stream.write(write_buf.chunk()).await?;
+        let bytes_written = stream.write_buf(write_buf).await?;
        if bytes_written == 0 {
            return Err(io::Error::new(
                ErrorKind::WriteZero,
                "failed to write message",
            ));
        }
-        // The advanced part will be garbage collected, likely during shifting
-        // data left on next attempt to write to buffer when free space is not
-        // enough.
-        write_buf.advance(bytes_written);
    }
-    write_buf.clear();
    stream.flush().await
 }

+/// Cancellation safe as long as the AsyncWrite is cancellation safe.
 async fn shutdown<S: AsyncWrite + Unpin>(
    stream: &mut S,
    write_buf: &mut BytesMut,
--- a/libs/pq_proto/src/lib.rs
+++ b/libs/pq_proto/src/lib.rs
@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 //! Postgres protocol messages serialization-deserialization. See
 //! <https://www.postgresql.org/docs/devel/protocol-message-formats.html>
 //! on message formats.
+#![deny(clippy::undocumented_unsafe_blocks)]

 pub mod framed;

@@ -670,6 +671,7 @@ pub fn read_cstr(buf: &mut Bytes) -> Result<Bytes, ProtocolError> {
 }

 pub const SQLSTATE_INTERNAL_ERROR: &[u8; 5] = b"XX000";
+pub const SQLSTATE_ADMIN_SHUTDOWN: &[u8; 5] = b"57P01";
 pub const SQLSTATE_SUCCESSFUL_COMPLETION: &[u8; 5] = b"00000";

 impl<'a> BeMessage<'a> {
@@ -959,7 +961,7 @@ mod tests {
        let make_params = |options| StartupMessageParams::new([("options", options)]);

        let params = StartupMessageParams::new([]);
-        assert!(matches!(params.options_escaped(), None));
+        assert!(params.options_escaped().is_none());

        let params = make_params("");
        assert!(split_options(&params).is_empty());
--- a/libs/remote_storage/Cargo.toml
+++ b/libs/remote_storage/Cargo.toml
@@ -8,11 +8,14 @@ license.workspace = true
 anyhow.workspace = true
 async-trait.workspace = true
 once_cell.workspace = true
+aws-smithy-async.workspace = true
 aws-smithy-http.workspace = true
 aws-types.workspace = true
 aws-config.workspace = true
 aws-sdk-s3.workspace = true
 aws-credential-types.workspace = true
+bytes.workspace = true
+camino.workspace = true
 hyper = { workspace = true, features = ["stream"] }
 serde.workspace = true
 serde_json.workspace = true
@@ -25,7 +28,15 @@ metrics.workspace = true
 utils.workspace = true
 pin-project-lite.workspace = true
 workspace_hack.workspace = true
+azure_core.workspace = true
+azure_identity.workspace = true
+azure_storage.workspace = true
+azure_storage_blobs.workspace = true
+futures-util.workspace = true
+http-types.workspace = true
+itertools.workspace = true

 [dev-dependencies]
-tempfile.workspace = true
+camino-tempfile.workspace = true
 test-context.workspace = true
+rand.workspace = true
--- a/libs/remote_storage/src/azure_blob.rs
+++ b/libs/remote_storage/src/azure_blob.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,314 @@
+//! Azure Blob Storage wrapper
+
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::env;
+use std::num::NonZeroU32;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::{borrow::Cow, io::Cursor};
+
+use super::REMOTE_STORAGE_PREFIX_SEPARATOR;
+use anyhow::Result;
+use azure_core::request_options::{MaxResults, Metadata, Range};
+use azure_identity::DefaultAzureCredential;
+use azure_storage::StorageCredentials;
+use azure_storage_blobs::prelude::ClientBuilder;
+use azure_storage_blobs::{blob::operations::GetBlobBuilder, prelude::ContainerClient};
+use futures_util::StreamExt;
+use http_types::StatusCode;
+use tokio::io::AsyncRead;
+use tracing::debug;
+
+use crate::s3_bucket::RequestKind;
+use crate::{
+    AzureConfig, ConcurrencyLimiter, Download, DownloadError, Listing, ListingMode, RemotePath,
+    RemoteStorage, StorageMetadata,
+};
+
+pub struct AzureBlobStorage {
+    client: ContainerClient,
+    prefix_in_container: Option<String>,
+    max_keys_per_list_response: Option<NonZeroU32>,
+    concurrency_limiter: ConcurrencyLimiter,
+}
+
+impl AzureBlobStorage {
+    pub fn new(azure_config: &AzureConfig) -> Result<Self> {
+        debug!(
+            "Creating azure remote storage for azure container {}",
+            azure_config.container_name
+        );
+
+        let account = env::var("AZURE_STORAGE_ACCOUNT").expect("missing AZURE_STORAGE_ACCOUNT");
+
+        // If the `AZURE_STORAGE_ACCESS_KEY` env var has an access key, use that,
+        // otherwise try the token based credentials.
+        let credentials = if let Ok(access_key) = env::var("AZURE_STORAGE_ACCESS_KEY") {
+            StorageCredentials::access_key(account.clone(), access_key)
+        } else {
+            let token_credential = DefaultAzureCredential::default();
+            StorageCredentials::token_credential(Arc::new(token_credential))
+        };
+
+        let builder = ClientBuilder::new(account, credentials);
+
+        let client = builder.container_client(azure_config.container_name.to_owned());
+
+        let max_keys_per_list_response =
+            if let Some(limit) = azure_config.max_keys_per_list_response {
+                Some(
+                    NonZeroU32::new(limit as u32)
+                        .ok_or_else(|| anyhow::anyhow!("max_keys_per_list_response can't be 0"))?,
+                )
+            } else {
+                None
+            };
+
+        Ok(AzureBlobStorage {
+            client,
+            prefix_in_container: azure_config.prefix_in_container.to_owned(),
+            max_keys_per_list_response,
+            concurrency_limiter: ConcurrencyLimiter::new(azure_config.concurrency_limit.get()),
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub fn relative_path_to_name(&self, path: &RemotePath) -> String {
+        assert_eq!(std::path::MAIN_SEPARATOR, REMOTE_STORAGE_PREFIX_SEPARATOR);
+        let path_string = path
+            .get_path()
+            .as_str()
+            .trim_end_matches(REMOTE_STORAGE_PREFIX_SEPARATOR);
+        match &self.prefix_in_container {
+            Some(prefix) => {
+                if prefix.ends_with(REMOTE_STORAGE_PREFIX_SEPARATOR) {
+                    prefix.clone() + path_string
+                } else {
+                    format!("{prefix}{REMOTE_STORAGE_PREFIX_SEPARATOR}{path_string}")
+                }
+            }
+            None => path_string.to_string(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn name_to_relative_path(&self, key: &str) -> RemotePath {
+        let relative_path =
+            match key.strip_prefix(self.prefix_in_container.as_deref().unwrap_or_default()) {
+                Some(stripped) => stripped,
+                // we rely on Azure to return properly prefixed paths
+                // for requests with a certain prefix
+                None => panic!(
+                    "Key {key} does not start with container prefix {:?}",
+                    self.prefix_in_container
+                ),
+            };
+        RemotePath(
+            relative_path
+                .split(REMOTE_STORAGE_PREFIX_SEPARATOR)
+                .collect(),
+        )
+    }
+
+    async fn download_for_builder(
+        &self,
+        builder: GetBlobBuilder,
+    ) -> Result<Download, DownloadError> {
+        let mut response = builder.into_stream();
+
+        let mut metadata = HashMap::new();
+        // TODO give proper streaming response instead of buffering into RAM
+        // https://github.com/neondatabase/neon/issues/5563
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        while let Some(part) = response.next().await {
+            let part = part.map_err(to_download_error)?;
+            if let Some(blob_meta) = part.blob.metadata {
+                metadata.extend(blob_meta.iter().map(|(k, v)| (k.to_owned(), v.to_owned())));
+            }
+            let data = part
+                .data
+                .collect()
+                .await
+                .map_err(|e| DownloadError::Other(e.into()))?;
+            buf.extend_from_slice(&data.slice(..));
+        }
+        Ok(Download {
+            download_stream: Box::pin(Cursor::new(buf)),
+            metadata: Some(StorageMetadata(metadata)),
+        })
+    }
+
+    async fn permit(&self, kind: RequestKind) -> tokio::sync::SemaphorePermit<'_> {
+        self.concurrency_limiter
+            .acquire(kind)
+            .await
+            .expect("semaphore is never closed")
+    }
+}
+
+fn to_azure_metadata(metadata: StorageMetadata) -> Metadata {
+    let mut res = Metadata::new();
+    for (k, v) in metadata.0.into_iter() {
+        res.insert(k, v);
+    }
+    res
+}
+
+fn to_download_error(error: azure_core::Error) -> DownloadError {
+    if let Some(http_err) = error.as_http_error() {
+        match http_err.status() {
+            StatusCode::NotFound => DownloadError::NotFound,
+            StatusCode::BadRequest => DownloadError::BadInput(anyhow::Error::new(error)),
+            _ => DownloadError::Other(anyhow::Error::new(error)),
+        }
+    } else {
+        DownloadError::Other(error.into())
+    }
+}
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl RemoteStorage for AzureBlobStorage {
+    async fn list(
+        &self,
+        prefix: Option<&RemotePath>,
+        mode: ListingMode,
+    ) -> anyhow::Result<Listing, DownloadError> {
+        // get the passed prefix or if it is not set use prefix_in_bucket value
+        let list_prefix = prefix
+            .map(|p| self.relative_path_to_name(p))
+            .or_else(|| self.prefix_in_container.clone())
+            .map(|mut p| {
+                // required to end with a separator
+                // otherwise request will return only the entry of a prefix
+                if matches!(mode, ListingMode::WithDelimiter)
+                    && !p.ends_with(REMOTE_STORAGE_PREFIX_SEPARATOR)
+                {
+                    p.push(REMOTE_STORAGE_PREFIX_SEPARATOR);
+                }
+                p
+            });
+
+        let mut builder = self.client.list_blobs();
+
+        if let ListingMode::WithDelimiter = mode {
+            builder = builder.delimiter(REMOTE_STORAGE_PREFIX_SEPARATOR.to_string());
+        }
+
+        if let Some(prefix) = list_prefix {
+            builder = builder.prefix(Cow::from(prefix.to_owned()));
+        }
+
+        if let Some(limit) = self.max_keys_per_list_response {
+            builder = builder.max_results(MaxResults::new(limit));
+        }
+
+        let mut response = builder.into_stream();
+        let mut res = Listing::default();
+        while let Some(l) = response.next().await {
+            let entry = l.map_err(to_download_error)?;
+            let prefix_iter = entry
+                .blobs
+                .prefixes()
+                .map(|prefix| self.name_to_relative_path(&prefix.name));
+            res.prefixes.extend(prefix_iter);
+
+            let blob_iter = entry
+                .blobs
+                .blobs()
+                .map(|k| self.name_to_relative_path(&k.name));
+            res.keys.extend(blob_iter);
+        }
+        Ok(res)
+    }
+    async fn upload(
+        &self,
+        mut from: impl AsyncRead + Unpin + Send + Sync + 'static,
+        data_size_bytes: usize,
+        to: &RemotePath,
+        metadata: Option<StorageMetadata>,
+    ) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+        let _permit = self.permit(RequestKind::Put).await;
+        let blob_client = self.client.blob_client(self.relative_path_to_name(to));
+
+        // TODO FIX THIS UGLY HACK and don't buffer the entire object
+        // into RAM here, but use the streaming interface. For that,
+        // we'd have to change the interface though...
+        // https://github.com/neondatabase/neon/issues/5563
+        let mut buf = Vec::with_capacity(data_size_bytes);
+        tokio::io::copy(&mut from, &mut buf).await?;
+        let body = azure_core::Body::Bytes(buf.into());
+
+        let mut builder = blob_client.put_block_blob(body);
+
+        if let Some(metadata) = metadata {
+            builder = builder.metadata(to_azure_metadata(metadata));
+        }
+
+        let _response = builder.into_future().await?;
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn download(&self, from: &RemotePath) -> Result<Download, DownloadError> {
+        let _permit = self.permit(RequestKind::Get).await;
+        let blob_client = self.client.blob_client(self.relative_path_to_name(from));
+
+        let builder = blob_client.get();
+
+        self.download_for_builder(builder).await
+    }
+
+    async fn download_byte_range(
+        &self,
+        from: &RemotePath,
+        start_inclusive: u64,
+        end_exclusive: Option<u64>,
+    ) -> Result<Download, DownloadError> {
+        let _permit = self.permit(RequestKind::Get).await;
+        let blob_client = self.client.blob_client(self.relative_path_to_name(from));
+
+        let mut builder = blob_client.get();
+
+        if let Some(end_exclusive) = end_exclusive {
+            builder = builder.range(Range::new(start_inclusive, end_exclusive));
+        } else {
+            // Open ranges are not supported by the SDK so we work around
+            // by setting the upper limit extremely high (but high enough
+            // to still be representable by signed 64 bit integers).
+            // TODO remove workaround once the SDK adds open range support
+            // https://github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-rust/issues/1438
+            let end_exclusive = u64::MAX / 4;
+            builder = builder.range(Range::new(start_inclusive, end_exclusive));
+        }
+
+        self.download_for_builder(builder).await
+    }
+
+    async fn delete(&self, path: &RemotePath) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+        let _permit = self.permit(RequestKind::Delete).await;
+        let blob_client = self.client.blob_client(self.relative_path_to_name(path));
+
+        let builder = blob_client.delete();
+
+        match builder.into_future().await {
+            Ok(_response) => Ok(()),
+            Err(e) => {
+                if let Some(http_err) = e.as_http_error() {
+                    if http_err.status() == StatusCode::NotFound {
+                        return Ok(());
+                    }
+                }
+                Err(anyhow::Error::new(e))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn delete_objects<'a>(&self, paths: &'a [RemotePath]) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+        // Permit is already obtained by inner delete function
+
+        // TODO batch requests are also not supported by the SDK
+        // https://github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-rust/issues/1068
+        // https://github.com/Azure/azure-sdk-for-rust/issues/1249
+        for path in paths {
+            self.delete(path).await?;
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
--- a/libs/remote_storage/src/lib.rs
+++ b/libs/remote_storage/src/lib.rs
@@ -4,60 +4,85 @@
 //! [`RemoteStorage`] trait a CRUD-like generic abstraction to use for adapting external storages with a few implementations:
 //!   * [`local_fs`] allows to use local file system as an external storage
 //!   * [`s3_bucket`] uses AWS S3 bucket as an external storage
+//!   * [`azure_blob`] allows to use Azure Blob storage as an external storage
 //!
+#![deny(unsafe_code)]
+#![deny(clippy::undocumented_unsafe_blocks)]
+
+mod azure_blob;
 mod local_fs;
 mod s3_bucket;
 mod simulate_failures;

-use std::{
-    collections::HashMap,
-    fmt::Debug,
-    num::{NonZeroU32, NonZeroUsize},
-    path::{Path, PathBuf},
-    pin::Pin,
-    sync::Arc,
-};
+use std::{collections::HashMap, fmt::Debug, num::NonZeroUsize, pin::Pin, sync::Arc};

 use anyhow::{bail, Context};
+use camino::{Utf8Path, Utf8PathBuf};

-use tokio::io;
+use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
+use tokio::{io, sync::Semaphore};
 use toml_edit::Item;
 use tracing::info;

-pub use self::{local_fs::LocalFs, s3_bucket::S3Bucket, simulate_failures::UnreliableWrapper};
+pub use self::{
+    azure_blob::AzureBlobStorage, local_fs::LocalFs, s3_bucket::S3Bucket,
+    simulate_failures::UnreliableWrapper,
+};
+use s3_bucket::RequestKind;

-/// How many different timelines can be processed simultaneously when synchronizing layers with the remote storage.
-/// During regular work, pageserver produces one layer file per timeline checkpoint, with bursts of concurrency
-/// during start (where local and remote timelines are compared and initial sync tasks are scheduled) and timeline attach.
-/// Both cases may trigger timeline download, that might download a lot of layers. This concurrency is limited by the clients internally, if needed.
-pub const DEFAULT_REMOTE_STORAGE_MAX_CONCURRENT_SYNCS: usize = 50;
-pub const DEFAULT_REMOTE_STORAGE_MAX_SYNC_ERRORS: u32 = 10;
 /// Currently, sync happens with AWS S3, that has two limits on requests per second:
 /// ~200 RPS for IAM services
 /// <https://docs.aws.amazon.com/AmazonRDS/latest/AuroraUserGuide/UsingWithRDS.IAMDBAuth.html>
 /// ~3500 PUT/COPY/POST/DELETE or 5500 GET/HEAD S3 requests
 /// <https://aws.amazon.com/premiumsupport/knowledge-center/s3-request-limit-avoid-throttling/>
 pub const DEFAULT_REMOTE_STORAGE_S3_CONCURRENCY_LIMIT: usize = 100;
+/// We set this a little bit low as we currently buffer the entire file into RAM
+///
+/// Here, a limit of max 20k concurrent connections was noted.
+/// <https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/answers/questions/1301863/is-there-any-limitation-to-concurrent-connections>
+pub const DEFAULT_REMOTE_STORAGE_AZURE_CONCURRENCY_LIMIT: usize = 30;
 /// No limits on the client side, which currenltly means 1000 for AWS S3.
 /// <https://docs.aws.amazon.com/AmazonS3/latest/API/API_ListObjectsV2.html#API_ListObjectsV2_RequestSyntax>
 pub const DEFAULT_MAX_KEYS_PER_LIST_RESPONSE: Option<i32> = None;

+/// As defined in S3 docs
+pub const MAX_KEYS_PER_DELETE: usize = 1000;
+
 const REMOTE_STORAGE_PREFIX_SEPARATOR: char = '/';

 /// Path on the remote storage, relative to some inner prefix.
 /// The prefix is an implementation detail, that allows representing local paths
 /// as the remote ones, stripping the local storage prefix away.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord, Hash)]
-pub struct RemotePath(PathBuf);
+pub struct RemotePath(Utf8PathBuf);
+
+impl Serialize for RemotePath {
+    fn serialize<S>(&self, serializer: S) -> Result<S::Ok, S::Error>
+    where
+        S: serde::Serializer,
+    {
+        serializer.collect_str(self)
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'de> Deserialize<'de> for RemotePath {
+    fn deserialize<D>(deserializer: D) -> Result<Self, D::Error>
+    where
+        D: serde::Deserializer<'de>,
+    {
+        let str = String::deserialize(deserializer)?;
+        Ok(Self(Utf8PathBuf::from(&str)))
+    }
+}

 impl std::fmt::Display for RemotePath {
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
-        write!(f, "{}", self.0.display())
+        std::fmt::Display::fmt(&self.0, f)
    }
 }

 impl RemotePath {
-    pub fn new(relative_path: &Path) -> anyhow::Result<Self> {
+    pub fn new(relative_path: &Utf8Path) -> anyhow::Result<Self> {
        anyhow::ensure!(
            relative_path.is_relative(),
            "Path {relative_path:?} is not relative"
@@ -66,28 +91,48 @@ impl RemotePath {
    }

    pub fn from_string(relative_path: &str) -> anyhow::Result<Self> {
-        Self::new(Path::new(relative_path))
+        Self::new(Utf8Path::new(relative_path))
    }

-    pub fn with_base(&self, base_path: &Path) -> PathBuf {
+    pub fn with_base(&self, base_path: &Utf8Path) -> Utf8PathBuf {
        base_path.join(&self.0)
    }

    pub fn object_name(&self) -> Option<&str> {
-        self.0.file_name().and_then(|os_str| os_str.to_str())
+        self.0.file_name()
    }

-    pub fn join(&self, segment: &Path) -> Self {
+    pub fn join(&self, segment: &Utf8Path) -> Self {
        Self(self.0.join(segment))
    }

-    pub fn get_path(&self) -> &PathBuf {
+    pub fn get_path(&self) -> &Utf8PathBuf {
        &self.0
    }

    pub fn extension(&self) -> Option<&str> {
-        self.0.extension()?.to_str()
+        self.0.extension()
    }
+
+    pub fn strip_prefix(&self, p: &RemotePath) -> Result<&Utf8Path, std::path::StripPrefixError> {
+        self.0.strip_prefix(&p.0)
+    }
+}
+
+/// We don't need callers to be able to pass arbitrary delimiters: just control
+/// whether listings will use a '/' separator or not.
+///
+/// The WithDelimiter mode will populate `prefixes` and `keys` in the result.  The
+/// NoDelimiter mode will only populate `keys`.
+pub enum ListingMode {
+    WithDelimiter,
+    NoDelimiter,
+}
+
+#[derive(Default)]
+pub struct Listing {
+    pub prefixes: Vec<RemotePath>,
+    pub keys: Vec<RemotePath>,
 }

 /// Storage (potentially remote) API to manage its state.
@@ -102,8 +147,13 @@ pub trait RemoteStorage: Send + Sync + 'static {
    async fn list_prefixes(
        &self,
        prefix: Option<&RemotePath>,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<RemotePath>, DownloadError>;
-
+    ) -> Result<Vec<RemotePath>, DownloadError> {
+        let result = self
+            .list(prefix, ListingMode::WithDelimiter)
+            .await?
+            .prefixes;
+        Ok(result)
+    }
    /// Lists all files in directory "recursively"
    /// (not really recursively, because AWS has a flat namespace)
    /// Note: This is subtely different than list_prefixes,
@@ -115,7 +165,16 @@ pub trait RemoteStorage: Send + Sync + 'static {
    /// whereas,
    /// list_prefixes("foo/bar/") = ["cat", "dog"]
    /// See `test_real_s3.rs` for more details.
-    async fn list_files(&self, folder: Option<&RemotePath>) -> anyhow::Result<Vec<RemotePath>>;
+    async fn list_files(&self, prefix: Option<&RemotePath>) -> anyhow::Result<Vec<RemotePath>> {
+        let result = self.list(prefix, ListingMode::NoDelimiter).await?.keys;
+        Ok(result)
+    }
+
+    async fn list(
+        &self,
+        prefix: Option<&RemotePath>,
+        _mode: ListingMode,
+    ) -> anyhow::Result<Listing, DownloadError>;

    /// Streams the local file contents into remote into the remote storage entry.
    async fn upload(
@@ -166,6 +225,9 @@ pub enum DownloadError {
    BadInput(anyhow::Error),
    /// The file was not found in the remote storage.
    NotFound,
+    /// A cancellation token aborted the download, typically during
+    /// tenant detach or process shutdown.
+    Cancelled,
    /// The file was found in the remote storage, but the download failed.
    Other(anyhow::Error),
 }
@@ -176,6 +238,7 @@ impl std::fmt::Display for DownloadError {
            DownloadError::BadInput(e) => {
                write!(f, "Failed to download a remote file due to user input: {e}")
            }
+            DownloadError::Cancelled => write!(f, "Cancelled, shutting down"),
            DownloadError::NotFound => write!(f, "No file found for the remote object id given"),
            DownloadError::Other(e) => write!(f, "Failed to download a remote file: {e:?}"),
        }
@@ -190,10 +253,24 @@ impl std::error::Error for DownloadError {}
 pub enum GenericRemoteStorage {
    LocalFs(LocalFs),
    AwsS3(Arc<S3Bucket>),
+    AzureBlob(Arc<AzureBlobStorage>),
    Unreliable(Arc<UnreliableWrapper>),
 }

 impl GenericRemoteStorage {
+    pub async fn list(
+        &self,
+        prefix: Option<&RemotePath>,
+        mode: ListingMode,
+    ) -> anyhow::Result<Listing, DownloadError> {
+        match self {
+            Self::LocalFs(s) => s.list(prefix, mode).await,
+            Self::AwsS3(s) => s.list(prefix, mode).await,
+            Self::AzureBlob(s) => s.list(prefix, mode).await,
+            Self::Unreliable(s) => s.list(prefix, mode).await,
+        }
+    }
+
    // A function for listing all the files in a "directory"
    // Example:
    // list_files("foo/bar") = ["foo/bar/a.txt", "foo/bar/b.txt"]
@@ -201,6 +278,7 @@ impl GenericRemoteStorage {
        match self {
            Self::LocalFs(s) => s.list_files(folder).await,
            Self::AwsS3(s) => s.list_files(folder).await,
+            Self::AzureBlob(s) => s.list_files(folder).await,
            Self::Unreliable(s) => s.list_files(folder).await,
        }
    }
@@ -215,6 +293,7 @@ impl GenericRemoteStorage {
        match self {
            Self::LocalFs(s) => s.list_prefixes(prefix).await,
            Self::AwsS3(s) => s.list_prefixes(prefix).await,
+            Self::AzureBlob(s) => s.list_prefixes(prefix).await,
            Self::Unreliable(s) => s.list_prefixes(prefix).await,
        }
    }
@@ -229,6 +308,7 @@ impl GenericRemoteStorage {
        match self {
            Self::LocalFs(s) => s.upload(from, data_size_bytes, to, metadata).await,
            Self::AwsS3(s) => s.upload(from, data_size_bytes, to, metadata).await,
+            Self::AzureBlob(s) => s.upload(from, data_size_bytes, to, metadata).await,
            Self::Unreliable(s) => s.upload(from, data_size_bytes, to, metadata).await,
        }
    }
@@ -237,6 +317,7 @@ impl GenericRemoteStorage {
        match self {
            Self::LocalFs(s) => s.download(from).await,
            Self::AwsS3(s) => s.download(from).await,
+            Self::AzureBlob(s) => s.download(from).await,
            Self::Unreliable(s) => s.download(from).await,
        }
    }
@@ -256,6 +337,10 @@ impl GenericRemoteStorage {
                s.download_byte_range(from, start_inclusive, end_exclusive)
                    .await
            }
+            Self::AzureBlob(s) => {
+                s.download_byte_range(from, start_inclusive, end_exclusive)
+                    .await
+            }
            Self::Unreliable(s) => {
                s.download_byte_range(from, start_inclusive, end_exclusive)
                    .await
@@ -267,6 +352,7 @@ impl GenericRemoteStorage {
        match self {
            Self::LocalFs(s) => s.delete(path).await,
            Self::AwsS3(s) => s.delete(path).await,
+            Self::AzureBlob(s) => s.delete(path).await,
            Self::Unreliable(s) => s.delete(path).await,
        }
    }
@@ -275,6 +361,7 @@ impl GenericRemoteStorage {
        match self {
            Self::LocalFs(s) => s.delete_objects(paths).await,
            Self::AwsS3(s) => s.delete_objects(paths).await,
+            Self::AzureBlob(s) => s.delete_objects(paths).await,
            Self::Unreliable(s) => s.delete_objects(paths).await,
        }
    }
@@ -284,7 +371,7 @@ impl GenericRemoteStorage {
    pub fn from_config(storage_config: &RemoteStorageConfig) -> anyhow::Result<Self> {
        Ok(match &storage_config.storage {
            RemoteStorageKind::LocalFs(root) => {
-                info!("Using fs root '{}' as a remote storage", root.display());
+                info!("Using fs root '{root}' as a remote storage");
                Self::LocalFs(LocalFs::new(root.clone())?)
            }
            RemoteStorageKind::AwsS3(s3_config) => {
@@ -292,6 +379,11 @@ impl GenericRemoteStorage {
                      s3_config.bucket_name, s3_config.bucket_region, s3_config.prefix_in_bucket, s3_config.endpoint);
                Self::AwsS3(Arc::new(S3Bucket::new(s3_config)?))
            }
+            RemoteStorageKind::AzureContainer(azure_config) => {
+                info!("Using azure container '{}' in region '{}' as a remote storage, prefix in container: '{:?}'",
+                      azure_config.container_name, azure_config.container_region, azure_config.prefix_in_container);
+                Self::AzureBlob(Arc::new(AzureBlobStorage::new(azure_config)?))
+            }
        })
    }

@@ -339,10 +431,6 @@ pub struct StorageMetadata(HashMap<String, String>);
 /// External backup storage configuration, enough for creating a client for that storage.
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
 pub struct RemoteStorageConfig {
-    /// Max allowed number of concurrent sync operations between the API user and the remote storage.
-    pub max_concurrent_syncs: NonZeroUsize,
-    /// Max allowed errors before the sync task is considered failed and evicted.
-    pub max_sync_errors: NonZeroU32,
    /// The storage connection configuration.
    pub storage: RemoteStorageKind,
 }
@@ -352,10 +440,13 @@ pub struct RemoteStorageConfig {
 pub enum RemoteStorageKind {
    /// Storage based on local file system.
    /// Specify a root folder to place all stored files into.
-    LocalFs(PathBuf),
+    LocalFs(Utf8PathBuf),
    /// AWS S3 based storage, storing all files in the S3 bucket
    /// specified by the config
    AwsS3(S3Config),
+    /// Azure Blob based storage, storing all files in the container
+    /// specified by the config
+    AzureContainer(AzureConfig),
 }

 /// AWS S3 bucket coordinates and access credentials to manage the bucket contents (read and write).
@@ -395,27 +486,53 @@ impl Debug for S3Config {
    }
 }

+/// Azure  bucket coordinates and access credentials to manage the bucket contents (read and write).
+#[derive(Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub struct AzureConfig {
+    /// Name of the container to connect to.
+    pub container_name: String,
+    /// The region where the bucket is located at.
+    pub container_region: String,
+    /// A "subfolder" in the container, to use the same container separately by multiple remote storage users at once.
+    pub prefix_in_container: Option<String>,
+    /// Azure has various limits on its API calls, we need not to exceed those.
+    /// See [`DEFAULT_REMOTE_STORAGE_AZURE_CONCURRENCY_LIMIT`] for more details.
+    pub concurrency_limit: NonZeroUsize,
+    pub max_keys_per_list_response: Option<i32>,
+}
+
+impl Debug for AzureConfig {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        f.debug_struct("AzureConfig")
+            .field("bucket_name", &self.container_name)
+            .field("bucket_region", &self.container_region)
+            .field("prefix_in_bucket", &self.prefix_in_container)
+            .field("concurrency_limit", &self.concurrency_limit)
+            .field(
+                "max_keys_per_list_response",
+                &self.max_keys_per_list_response,
+            )
+            .finish()
+    }
+}
+
 impl RemoteStorageConfig {
    pub fn from_toml(toml: &toml_edit::Item) -> anyhow::Result<Option<RemoteStorageConfig>> {
        let local_path = toml.get("local_path");
        let bucket_name = toml.get("bucket_name");
        let bucket_region = toml.get("bucket_region");
+        let container_name = toml.get("container_name");
+        let container_region = toml.get("container_region");

-        let max_concurrent_syncs = NonZeroUsize::new(
-            parse_optional_integer("max_concurrent_syncs", toml)?
-                .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_REMOTE_STORAGE_MAX_CONCURRENT_SYNCS),
-        )
-        .context("Failed to parse 'max_concurrent_syncs' as a positive integer")?;
-
-        let max_sync_errors = NonZeroU32::new(
-            parse_optional_integer("max_sync_errors", toml)?
-                .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_REMOTE_STORAGE_MAX_SYNC_ERRORS),
-        )
-        .context("Failed to parse 'max_sync_errors' as a positive integer")?;
+        let use_azure = container_name.is_some() && container_region.is_some();

+        let default_concurrency_limit = if use_azure {
+            DEFAULT_REMOTE_STORAGE_AZURE_CONCURRENCY_LIMIT
+        } else {
+            DEFAULT_REMOTE_STORAGE_S3_CONCURRENCY_LIMIT
+        };
        let concurrency_limit = NonZeroUsize::new(
-            parse_optional_integer("concurrency_limit", toml)?
-                .unwrap_or(DEFAULT_REMOTE_STORAGE_S3_CONCURRENCY_LIMIT),
+            parse_optional_integer("concurrency_limit", toml)?.unwrap_or(default_concurrency_limit),
        )
        .context("Failed to parse 'concurrency_limit' as a positive integer")?;

@@ -424,40 +541,73 @@ impl RemoteStorageConfig {
                .context("Failed to parse 'max_keys_per_list_response' as a positive integer")?
                .or(DEFAULT_MAX_KEYS_PER_LIST_RESPONSE);

-        let storage = match (local_path, bucket_name, bucket_region) {
+        let endpoint = toml
+            .get("endpoint")
+            .map(|endpoint| parse_toml_string("endpoint", endpoint))
+            .transpose()?;
+
+        let storage = match (
+            local_path,
+            bucket_name,
+            bucket_region,
+            container_name,
+            container_region,
+        ) {
            // no 'local_path' nor 'bucket_name' options are provided, consider this remote storage disabled
-            (None, None, None) => return Ok(None),
-            (_, Some(_), None) => {
+            (None, None, None, None, None) => return Ok(None),
+            (_, Some(_), None, ..) => {
                bail!("'bucket_region' option is mandatory if 'bucket_name' is given ")
            }
-            (_, None, Some(_)) => {
+            (_, None, Some(_), ..) => {
                bail!("'bucket_name' option is mandatory if 'bucket_region' is given ")
            }
-            (None, Some(bucket_name), Some(bucket_region)) => RemoteStorageKind::AwsS3(S3Config {
-                bucket_name: parse_toml_string("bucket_name", bucket_name)?,
-                bucket_region: parse_toml_string("bucket_region", bucket_region)?,
-                prefix_in_bucket: toml
-                    .get("prefix_in_bucket")
-                    .map(|prefix_in_bucket| parse_toml_string("prefix_in_bucket", prefix_in_bucket))
-                    .transpose()?,
-                endpoint: toml
-                    .get("endpoint")
-                    .map(|endpoint| parse_toml_string("endpoint", endpoint))
-                    .transpose()?,
-                concurrency_limit,
-                max_keys_per_list_response,
-            }),
-            (Some(local_path), None, None) => RemoteStorageKind::LocalFs(PathBuf::from(
-                parse_toml_string("local_path", local_path)?,
-            )),
-            (Some(_), Some(_), _) => bail!("local_path and bucket_name are mutually exclusive"),
+            (None, Some(bucket_name), Some(bucket_region), ..) => {
+                RemoteStorageKind::AwsS3(S3Config {
+                    bucket_name: parse_toml_string("bucket_name", bucket_name)?,
+                    bucket_region: parse_toml_string("bucket_region", bucket_region)?,
+                    prefix_in_bucket: toml
+                        .get("prefix_in_bucket")
+                        .map(|prefix_in_bucket| {
+                            parse_toml_string("prefix_in_bucket", prefix_in_bucket)
+                        })
+                        .transpose()?,
+                    endpoint,
+                    concurrency_limit,
+                    max_keys_per_list_response,
+                })
+            }
+            (_, _, _, Some(_), None) => {
+                bail!("'container_name' option is mandatory if 'container_region' is given ")
+            }
+            (_, _, _, None, Some(_)) => {
+                bail!("'container_name' option is mandatory if 'container_region' is given ")
+            }
+            (None, None, None, Some(container_name), Some(container_region)) => {
+                RemoteStorageKind::AzureContainer(AzureConfig {
+                    container_name: parse_toml_string("container_name", container_name)?,
+                    container_region: parse_toml_string("container_region", container_region)?,
+                    prefix_in_container: toml
+                        .get("prefix_in_container")
+                        .map(|prefix_in_container| {
+                            parse_toml_string("prefix_in_container", prefix_in_container)
+                        })
+                        .transpose()?,
+                    concurrency_limit,
+                    max_keys_per_list_response,
+                })
+            }
+            (Some(local_path), None, None, None, None) => RemoteStorageKind::LocalFs(
+                Utf8PathBuf::from(parse_toml_string("local_path", local_path)?),
+            ),
+            (Some(_), Some(_), ..) => {
+                bail!("'local_path' and 'bucket_name' are mutually exclusive")
+            }
+            (Some(_), _, _, Some(_), Some(_)) => {
+                bail!("local_path and 'container_name' are mutually exclusive")
+            }
        };

-        Ok(Some(RemoteStorageConfig {
-            max_concurrent_syncs,
-            max_sync_errors,
-            storage,
-        }))
+        Ok(Some(RemoteStorageConfig { storage }))
    }
 }

@@ -486,29 +636,69 @@ fn parse_toml_string(name: &str, item: &Item) -> anyhow::Result<String> {
    Ok(s.to_string())
 }

+struct ConcurrencyLimiter {
+    // Every request to S3 can be throttled or cancelled, if a certain number of requests per second is exceeded.
+    // Same goes to IAM, which is queried before every S3 request, if enabled. IAM has even lower RPS threshold.
+    // The helps to ensure we don't exceed the thresholds.
+    write: Arc<Semaphore>,
+    read: Arc<Semaphore>,
+}
+
+impl ConcurrencyLimiter {
+    fn for_kind(&self, kind: RequestKind) -> &Arc<Semaphore> {
+        match kind {
+            RequestKind::Get => &self.read,
+            RequestKind::Put => &self.write,
+            RequestKind::List => &self.read,
+            RequestKind::Delete => &self.write,
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn acquire(
+        &self,
+        kind: RequestKind,
+    ) -> Result<tokio::sync::SemaphorePermit<'_>, tokio::sync::AcquireError> {
+        self.for_kind(kind).acquire().await
+    }
+
+    async fn acquire_owned(
+        &self,
+        kind: RequestKind,
+    ) -> Result<tokio::sync::OwnedSemaphorePermit, tokio::sync::AcquireError> {
+        Arc::clone(self.for_kind(kind)).acquire_owned().await
+    }
+
+    fn new(limit: usize) -> ConcurrencyLimiter {
+        Self {
+            read: Arc::new(Semaphore::new(limit)),
+            write: Arc::new(Semaphore::new(limit)),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
    use super::*;

    #[test]
    fn test_object_name() {
-        let k = RemotePath::new(Path::new("a/b/c")).unwrap();
+        let k = RemotePath::new(Utf8Path::new("a/b/c")).unwrap();
        assert_eq!(k.object_name(), Some("c"));

-        let k = RemotePath::new(Path::new("a/b/c/")).unwrap();
+        let k = RemotePath::new(Utf8Path::new("a/b/c/")).unwrap();
        assert_eq!(k.object_name(), Some("c"));

-        let k = RemotePath::new(Path::new("a/")).unwrap();
+        let k = RemotePath::new(Utf8Path::new("a/")).unwrap();
        assert_eq!(k.object_name(), Some("a"));

        // XXX is it impossible to have an empty key?
-        let k = RemotePath::new(Path::new("")).unwrap();
+        let k = RemotePath::new(Utf8Path::new("")).unwrap();
        assert_eq!(k.object_name(), None);
    }

    #[test]
    fn rempte_path_cannot_be_created_from_absolute_ones() {
-        let err = RemotePath::new(Path::new("/")).expect_err("Should fail on absolute paths");
+        let err = RemotePath::new(Utf8Path::new("/")).expect_err("Should fail on absolute paths");
        assert_eq!(err.to_string(), "Path \"/\" is not relative");
    }
 }
--- a/libs/remote_storage/src/local_fs.rs
+++ b/libs/remote_storage/src/local_fs.rs
@@ -4,15 +4,10 @@
 //! This storage used in tests, but can also be used in cases when a certain persistent
 //! volume is mounted to the local FS.

-use std::{
-    borrow::Cow,
-    future::Future,
-    io::ErrorKind,
-    path::{Path, PathBuf},
-    pin::Pin,
-};
+use std::{borrow::Cow, future::Future, io::ErrorKind, pin::Pin};

 use anyhow::{bail, ensure, Context};
+use camino::{Utf8Path, Utf8PathBuf};
 use tokio::{
    fs,
    io::{self, AsyncReadExt, AsyncSeekExt, AsyncWriteExt},
@@ -20,7 +15,7 @@ use tokio::{
 use tracing::*;
 use utils::{crashsafe::path_with_suffix_extension, fs_ext::is_directory_empty};

-use crate::{Download, DownloadError, RemotePath};
+use crate::{Download, DownloadError, Listing, ListingMode, RemotePath};

 use super::{RemoteStorage, StorageMetadata};

@@ -28,20 +23,20 @@ const LOCAL_FS_TEMP_FILE_SUFFIX: &str = "___temp";

 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
 pub struct LocalFs {
-    storage_root: PathBuf,
+    storage_root: Utf8PathBuf,
 }

 impl LocalFs {
    /// Attempts to create local FS storage, along with its root directory.
    /// Storage root will be created (if does not exist) and transformed into an absolute path (if passed as relative).
-    pub fn new(mut storage_root: PathBuf) -> anyhow::Result<Self> {
+    pub fn new(mut storage_root: Utf8PathBuf) -> anyhow::Result<Self> {
        if !storage_root.exists() {
            std::fs::create_dir_all(&storage_root).with_context(|| {
                format!("Failed to create all directories in the given root path {storage_root:?}")
            })?;
        }
        if !storage_root.is_absolute() {
-            storage_root = storage_root.canonicalize().with_context(|| {
+            storage_root = storage_root.canonicalize_utf8().with_context(|| {
                format!("Failed to represent path {storage_root:?} as an absolute path")
            })?;
        }
@@ -50,7 +45,7 @@ impl LocalFs {
    }

    // mirrors S3Bucket::s3_object_to_relative_path
-    fn local_file_to_relative_path(&self, key: PathBuf) -> RemotePath {
+    fn local_file_to_relative_path(&self, key: Utf8PathBuf) -> RemotePath {
        let relative_path = key
            .strip_prefix(&self.storage_root)
            .expect("relative path must contain storage_root as prefix");
@@ -59,22 +54,18 @@ impl LocalFs {

    async fn read_storage_metadata(
        &self,
-        file_path: &Path,
+        file_path: &Utf8Path,
    ) -> anyhow::Result<Option<StorageMetadata>> {
        let metadata_path = storage_metadata_path(file_path);
        if metadata_path.exists() && metadata_path.is_file() {
            let metadata_string = fs::read_to_string(&metadata_path).await.with_context(|| {
-                format!(
-                    "Failed to read metadata from the local storage at '{}'",
-                    metadata_path.display()
-                )
+                format!("Failed to read metadata from the local storage at '{metadata_path}'")
            })?;

            serde_json::from_str(&metadata_string)
                .with_context(|| {
                    format!(
-                        "Failed to deserialize metadata from the local storage at '{}'",
-                        metadata_path.display()
+                        "Failed to deserialize metadata from the local storage at '{metadata_path}'",
                    )
                })
                .map(|metadata| Some(StorageMetadata(metadata)))
@@ -84,7 +75,7 @@ impl LocalFs {
    }

    #[cfg(test)]
-    async fn list(&self) -> anyhow::Result<Vec<RemotePath>> {
+    async fn list_all(&self) -> anyhow::Result<Vec<RemotePath>> {
        Ok(get_all_files(&self.storage_root, true)
            .await?
            .into_iter()
@@ -98,14 +89,89 @@ impl LocalFs {
            })
            .collect())
    }
+
+    // recursively lists all files in a directory,
+    // mirroring the `list_files` for `s3_bucket`
+    async fn list_recursive(&self, folder: Option<&RemotePath>) -> anyhow::Result<Vec<RemotePath>> {
+        let full_path = match folder {
+            Some(folder) => folder.with_base(&self.storage_root),
+            None => self.storage_root.clone(),
+        };
+
+        // If we were given a directory, we may use it as our starting point.
+        // Otherwise, we must go up to the parent directory.  This is because
+        // S3 object list prefixes can be arbitrary strings, but when reading
+        // the local filesystem we need a directory to start calling read_dir on.
+        let mut initial_dir = full_path.clone();
+        match fs::metadata(full_path.clone()).await {
+            Ok(meta) => {
+                if !meta.is_dir() {
+                    // It's not a directory: strip back to the parent
+                    initial_dir.pop();
+                }
+            }
+            Err(e) if e.kind() == ErrorKind::NotFound => {
+                // It's not a file that exists: strip the prefix back to the parent directory
+                initial_dir.pop();
+            }
+            Err(e) => {
+                // Unexpected I/O error
+                anyhow::bail!(e)
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Note that Utf8PathBuf starts_with only considers full path segments, but
+        // object prefixes are arbitrary strings, so we need the strings for doing
+        // starts_with later.
+        let prefix = full_path.as_str();
+
+        let mut files = vec![];
+        let mut directory_queue = vec![initial_dir];
+        while let Some(cur_folder) = directory_queue.pop() {
+            let mut entries = cur_folder.read_dir_utf8()?;
+            while let Some(Ok(entry)) = entries.next() {
+                let file_name = entry.file_name();
+                let full_file_name = cur_folder.join(file_name);
+                if full_file_name.as_str().starts_with(prefix) {
+                    let file_remote_path = self.local_file_to_relative_path(full_file_name.clone());
+                    files.push(file_remote_path);
+                    if full_file_name.is_dir() {
+                        directory_queue.push(full_file_name);
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(files)
+    }
 }

 #[async_trait::async_trait]
 impl RemoteStorage for LocalFs {
-    async fn list_prefixes(
+    async fn list(
        &self,
        prefix: Option<&RemotePath>,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<RemotePath>, DownloadError> {
+        mode: ListingMode,
+    ) -> Result<Listing, DownloadError> {
+        let mut result = Listing::default();
+
+        if let ListingMode::NoDelimiter = mode {
+            let keys = self
+                .list_recursive(prefix)
+                .await
+                .map_err(DownloadError::Other)?;
+
+            result.keys = keys
+                .into_iter()
+                .filter(|k| {
+                    let path = k.with_base(&self.storage_root);
+                    !path.is_dir()
+                })
+                .collect();
+
+            return Ok(result);
+        }
+
        let path = match prefix {
            Some(prefix) => Cow::Owned(prefix.with_base(&self.storage_root)),
            None => Cow::Borrowed(&self.storage_root),
@@ -115,8 +181,6 @@ impl RemoteStorage for LocalFs {
            .await
            .map_err(DownloadError::Other)?;

-        let mut prefixes = Vec::with_capacity(prefixes_to_filter.len());
-
        // filter out empty directories to mirror s3 behavior.
        for prefix in prefixes_to_filter {
            if prefix.is_dir()
@@ -127,43 +191,22 @@ impl RemoteStorage for LocalFs {
                continue;
            }

-            prefixes.push(
-                prefix
-                    .strip_prefix(&self.storage_root)
-                    .context("Failed to strip prefix")
-                    .and_then(RemotePath::new)
-                    .expect(
-                        "We list files for storage root, hence should be able to remote the prefix",
-                    ),
-            )
-        }
+            let stripped = prefix
+                .strip_prefix(&self.storage_root)
+                .context("Failed to strip prefix")
+                .and_then(RemotePath::new)
+                .expect(
+                    "We list files for storage root, hence should be able to remote the prefix",
+                );

-        Ok(prefixes)
-    }
-
-    // recursively lists all files in a directory,
-    // mirroring the `list_files` for `s3_bucket`
-    async fn list_files(&self, folder: Option<&RemotePath>) -> anyhow::Result<Vec<RemotePath>> {
-        let full_path = match folder {
-            Some(folder) => folder.with_base(&self.storage_root),
-            None => self.storage_root.clone(),
-        };
-        let mut files = vec![];
-        let mut directory_queue = vec![full_path.clone()];
-
-        while let Some(cur_folder) = directory_queue.pop() {
-            let mut entries = fs::read_dir(cur_folder.clone()).await?;
-            while let Some(entry) = entries.next_entry().await? {
-                let file_name: PathBuf = entry.file_name().into();
-                let full_file_name = cur_folder.clone().join(&file_name);
-                let file_remote_path = self.local_file_to_relative_path(full_file_name.clone());
-                files.push(file_remote_path.clone());
-                if full_file_name.is_dir() {
-                    directory_queue.push(full_file_name);
-                }
+            if prefix.is_dir() {
+                result.prefixes.push(stripped);
+            } else {
+                result.keys.push(stripped);
            }
        }
-        Ok(files)
+
+        Ok(result)
    }

    async fn upload(
@@ -196,10 +239,7 @@ impl RemoteStorage for LocalFs {
                .open(&temp_file_path)
                .await
                .with_context(|| {
-                    format!(
-                        "Failed to open target fs destination at '{}'",
-                        target_file_path.display()
-                    )
+                    format!("Failed to open target fs destination at '{target_file_path}'")
                })?,
        );

@@ -210,8 +250,7 @@ impl RemoteStorage for LocalFs {
            .await
            .with_context(|| {
                format!(
-                    "Failed to upload file (write temp) to the local storage at '{}'",
-                    temp_file_path.display()
+                    "Failed to upload file (write temp) to the local storage at '{temp_file_path}'",
                )
            })?;

@@ -228,8 +267,7 @@ impl RemoteStorage for LocalFs {

        destination.flush().await.with_context(|| {
            format!(
-                "Failed to upload (flush temp) file to the local storage at '{}'",
-                temp_file_path.display()
+                "Failed to upload (flush temp) file to the local storage at '{temp_file_path}'",
            )
        })?;

@@ -237,8 +275,7 @@ impl RemoteStorage for LocalFs {
            .await
            .with_context(|| {
                format!(
-                    "Failed to upload (rename) file to the local storage at '{}'",
-                    target_file_path.display()
+                    "Failed to upload (rename) file to the local storage at '{target_file_path}'",
                )
            })?;

@@ -252,8 +289,7 @@ impl RemoteStorage for LocalFs {
            .await
            .with_context(|| {
                format!(
-                    "Failed to write metadata to the local storage at '{}'",
-                    storage_metadata_path.display()
+                    "Failed to write metadata to the local storage at '{storage_metadata_path}'",
                )
            })?;
        }
@@ -359,16 +395,16 @@ impl RemoteStorage for LocalFs {
    }
 }

-fn storage_metadata_path(original_path: &Path) -> PathBuf {
+fn storage_metadata_path(original_path: &Utf8Path) -> Utf8PathBuf {
    path_with_suffix_extension(original_path, "metadata")
 }

 fn get_all_files<'a, P>(
    directory_path: P,
    recursive: bool,
-) -> Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = anyhow::Result<Vec<PathBuf>>> + Send + Sync + 'a>>
+) -> Pin<Box<dyn Future<Output = anyhow::Result<Vec<Utf8PathBuf>>> + Send + Sync + 'a>>
 where
-    P: AsRef<Path> + Send + Sync + 'a,
+    P: AsRef<Utf8Path> + Send + Sync + 'a,
 {
    Box::pin(async move {
        let directory_path = directory_path.as_ref();
@@ -378,7 +414,13 @@ where
                let mut dir_contents = fs::read_dir(directory_path).await?;
                while let Some(dir_entry) = dir_contents.next_entry().await? {
                    let file_type = dir_entry.file_type().await?;
-                    let entry_path = dir_entry.path();
+                    let entry_path =
+                        Utf8PathBuf::from_path_buf(dir_entry.path()).map_err(|pb| {
+                            anyhow::Error::msg(format!(
+                                "non-Unicode path: {}",
+                                pb.to_string_lossy()
+                            ))
+                        })?;
                    if file_type.is_symlink() {
                        debug!("{entry_path:?} is a symlink, skipping")
                    } else if file_type.is_dir() {
@@ -401,13 +443,10 @@ where
    })
 }

-async fn create_target_directory(target_file_path: &Path) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+async fn create_target_directory(target_file_path: &Utf8Path) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
    let target_dir = match target_file_path.parent() {
        Some(parent_dir) => parent_dir,
-        None => bail!(
-            "File path '{}' has no parent directory",
-            target_file_path.display()
-        ),
+        None => bail!("File path '{target_file_path}' has no parent directory"),
    };
    if !target_dir.exists() {
        fs::create_dir_all(target_dir).await?;
@@ -415,13 +454,9 @@ async fn create_target_directory(target_file_path: &Path) -> anyhow::Result<()>
    Ok(())
 }

-fn file_exists(file_path: &Path) -> anyhow::Result<bool> {
+fn file_exists(file_path: &Utf8Path) -> anyhow::Result<bool> {
    if file_path.exists() {
-        ensure!(
-            file_path.is_file(),
-            "file path '{}' is not a file",
-            file_path.display()
-        );
+        ensure!(file_path.is_file(), "file path '{file_path}' is not a file");
        Ok(true)
    } else {
        Ok(false)
@@ -432,13 +467,13 @@ fn file_exists(file_path: &Path) -> anyhow::Result<bool> {
 mod fs_tests {
    use super::*;

+    use camino_tempfile::tempdir;
    use std::{collections::HashMap, io::Write};
-    use tempfile::tempdir;

    async fn read_and_assert_remote_file_contents(
        storage: &LocalFs,
        #[allow(clippy::ptr_arg)]
-        // have to use &PathBuf due to `storage.local_path` parameter requirements
+        // have to use &Utf8PathBuf due to `storage.local_path` parameter requirements
        remote_storage_path: &RemotePath,
        expected_metadata: Option<&StorageMetadata>,
    ) -> anyhow::Result<String> {
@@ -466,7 +501,7 @@ mod fs_tests {

        let target_path_1 = upload_dummy_file(&storage, "upload_1", None).await?;
        assert_eq!(
-            storage.list().await?,
+            storage.list_all().await?,
            vec![target_path_1.clone()],
            "Should list a single file after first upload"
        );
@@ -485,7 +520,7 @@ mod fs_tests {
    async fn upload_file_negatives() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
        let storage = create_storage()?;

-        let id = RemotePath::new(Path::new("dummy"))?;
+        let id = RemotePath::new(Utf8Path::new("dummy"))?;
        let content = std::io::Cursor::new(b"12345");

        // Check that you get an error if the size parameter doesn't match the actual
@@ -510,7 +545,8 @@ mod fs_tests {
    }

    fn create_storage() -> anyhow::Result<LocalFs> {
-        LocalFs::new(tempdir()?.path().to_owned())
+        let storage_root = tempdir()?.path().to_path_buf();
+        LocalFs::new(storage_root)
    }

    #[tokio::test]
@@ -527,7 +563,7 @@ mod fs_tests {
        );

        let non_existing_path = "somewhere/else";
-        match storage.download(&RemotePath::new(Path::new(non_existing_path))?).await {
+        match storage.download(&RemotePath::new(Utf8Path::new(non_existing_path))?).await {
            Err(DownloadError::NotFound) => {} // Should get NotFound for non existing keys
            other => panic!("Should get a NotFound error when downloading non-existing storage files, but got: {other:?}"),
        }
@@ -653,7 +689,7 @@ mod fs_tests {
        let upload_target = upload_dummy_file(&storage, upload_name, None).await?;

        storage.delete(&upload_target).await?;
-        assert!(storage.list().await?.is_empty());
+        assert!(storage.list_all().await?.is_empty());

        storage
            .delete(&upload_target)
@@ -711,6 +747,43 @@ mod fs_tests {
        Ok(())
    }

+    #[tokio::test]
+    async fn list() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+        // No delimiter: should recursively list everything
+        let storage = create_storage()?;
+        let child = upload_dummy_file(&storage, "grandparent/parent/child", None).await?;
+        let uncle = upload_dummy_file(&storage, "grandparent/uncle", None).await?;
+
+        let listing = storage.list(None, ListingMode::NoDelimiter).await?;
+        assert!(listing.prefixes.is_empty());
+        assert_eq!(listing.keys, [uncle.clone(), child.clone()].to_vec());
+
+        // Delimiter: should only go one deep
+        let listing = storage.list(None, ListingMode::WithDelimiter).await?;
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            listing.prefixes,
+            [RemotePath::from_string("timelines").unwrap()].to_vec()
+        );
+        assert!(listing.keys.is_empty());
+
+        // Delimiter & prefix
+        let listing = storage
+            .list(
+                Some(&RemotePath::from_string("timelines/some_timeline/grandparent").unwrap()),
+                ListingMode::WithDelimiter,
+            )
+            .await?;
+        assert_eq!(
+            listing.prefixes,
+            [RemotePath::from_string("timelines/some_timeline/grandparent/parent").unwrap()]
+                .to_vec()
+        );
+        assert_eq!(listing.keys, [uncle.clone()].to_vec());
+
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
    async fn upload_dummy_file(
        storage: &LocalFs,
        name: &str,
@@ -741,7 +814,7 @@ mod fs_tests {
    }

    async fn create_file_for_upload(
-        path: &Path,
+        path: &Utf8Path,
        contents: &str,
    ) -> anyhow::Result<(io::BufReader<fs::File>, usize)> {
        std::fs::create_dir_all(path.parent().unwrap())?;
@@ -763,7 +836,7 @@ mod fs_tests {
    }

    async fn list_files_sorted(storage: &LocalFs) -> anyhow::Result<Vec<RemotePath>> {
-        let mut files = storage.list().await?;
+        let mut files = storage.list_all().await?;
        files.sort_by(|a, b| a.0.cmp(&b.0));
        Ok(files)
    }
--- a/libs/remote_storage/src/s3_bucket.rs
+++ b/libs/remote_storage/src/s3_bucket.rs
@@ -4,43 +4,44 @@
 //! allowing multiple api users to independently work with the same S3 bucket, if
 //! their bucket prefixes are both specified and different.

-use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::{borrow::Cow, sync::Arc};

 use anyhow::Context;
 use aws_config::{
    environment::credentials::EnvironmentVariableCredentialsProvider,
-    imds::credentials::ImdsCredentialsProvider, meta::credentials::CredentialsProviderChain,
-    provider_config::ProviderConfig, web_identity_token::WebIdentityTokenCredentialsProvider,
+    imds::credentials::ImdsCredentialsProvider,
+    meta::credentials::CredentialsProviderChain,
+    provider_config::ProviderConfig,
+    retry::{RetryConfigBuilder, RetryMode},
+    web_identity_token::WebIdentityTokenCredentialsProvider,
 };
 use aws_credential_types::cache::CredentialsCache;
 use aws_sdk_s3::{
-    config::{Config, Region},
+    config::{AsyncSleep, Config, Region, SharedAsyncSleep},
    error::SdkError,
    operation::get_object::GetObjectError,
    primitives::ByteStream,
    types::{Delete, ObjectIdentifier},
    Client,
 };
+use aws_smithy_async::rt::sleep::TokioSleep;
 use aws_smithy_http::body::SdkBody;
 use hyper::Body;
 use scopeguard::ScopeGuard;
-use tokio::{
-    io::{self, AsyncRead},
-    sync::Semaphore,
-};
+use tokio::io::{self, AsyncRead};
 use tokio_util::io::ReaderStream;
 use tracing::debug;

 use super::StorageMetadata;
 use crate::{
-    Download, DownloadError, RemotePath, RemoteStorage, S3Config, REMOTE_STORAGE_PREFIX_SEPARATOR,
+    ConcurrencyLimiter, Download, DownloadError, Listing, ListingMode, RemotePath, RemoteStorage,
+    S3Config, MAX_KEYS_PER_DELETE, REMOTE_STORAGE_PREFIX_SEPARATOR,
 };

-const MAX_DELETE_OBJECTS_REQUEST_SIZE: usize = 1000;
-
 pub(super) mod metrics;

-use self::metrics::{AttemptOutcome, RequestKind};
+use self::metrics::AttemptOutcome;
+pub(super) use self::metrics::RequestKind;

 /// AWS S3 storage.
 pub struct S3Bucket {
@@ -48,10 +49,7 @@ pub struct S3Bucket {
    bucket_name: String,
    prefix_in_bucket: Option<String>,
    max_keys_per_list_response: Option<i32>,
-    // Every request to S3 can be throttled or cancelled, if a certain number of requests per second is exceeded.
-    // Same goes to IAM, which is queried before every S3 request, if enabled. IAM has even lower RPS threshold.
-    // The helps to ensure we don't exceed the thresholds.
-    concurrency_limiter: Arc<Semaphore>,
+    concurrency_limiter: ConcurrencyLimiter,
 }

 #[derive(Default)]
@@ -89,10 +87,23 @@ impl S3Bucket {
            .or_else("imds", ImdsCredentialsProvider::builder().build())
        };

+        // AWS SDK requires us to specify how the RetryConfig should sleep when it wants to back off
+        let sleep_impl: Arc<dyn AsyncSleep> = Arc::new(TokioSleep::new());
+
+        // We do our own retries (see [`backoff::retry`]).  However, for the AWS SDK to enable rate limiting in response to throttling
+        // responses (e.g. 429 on too many ListObjectsv2 requests), we must provide a retry config.  We set it to use at most one
+        // attempt, and enable 'Adaptive' mode, which causes rate limiting to be enabled.
+        let mut retry_config = RetryConfigBuilder::new();
+        retry_config
+            .set_max_attempts(Some(1))
+            .set_mode(Some(RetryMode::Adaptive));
+
        let mut config_builder = Config::builder()
            .region(region)
            .credentials_cache(CredentialsCache::lazy())
-            .credentials_provider(credentials_provider);
+            .credentials_provider(credentials_provider)
+            .sleep_impl(SharedAsyncSleep::from(sleep_impl))
+            .retry_config(retry_config.build());

        if let Some(custom_endpoint) = aws_config.endpoint.clone() {
            config_builder = config_builder
@@ -118,7 +129,7 @@ impl S3Bucket {
            bucket_name: aws_config.bucket_name.clone(),
            max_keys_per_list_response: aws_config.max_keys_per_list_response,
            prefix_in_bucket,
-            concurrency_limiter: Arc::new(Semaphore::new(aws_config.concurrency_limit.get())),
+            concurrency_limiter: ConcurrencyLimiter::new(aws_config.concurrency_limit.get()),
        })
    }

@@ -144,12 +155,11 @@ impl S3Bucket {
        assert_eq!(std::path::MAIN_SEPARATOR, REMOTE_STORAGE_PREFIX_SEPARATOR);
        let path_string = path
            .get_path()
-            .to_string_lossy()
-            .trim_end_matches(REMOTE_STORAGE_PREFIX_SEPARATOR)
-            .to_string();
+            .as_str()
+            .trim_end_matches(REMOTE_STORAGE_PREFIX_SEPARATOR);
        match &self.prefix_in_bucket {
-            Some(prefix) => prefix.clone() + "/" + &path_string,
-            None => path_string,
+            Some(prefix) => prefix.clone() + "/" + path_string,
+            None => path_string.to_string(),
        }
    }

@@ -157,7 +167,7 @@ impl S3Bucket {
        let started_at = start_counting_cancelled_wait(kind);
        let permit = self
            .concurrency_limiter
-            .acquire()
+            .acquire(kind)
            .await
            .expect("semaphore is never closed");

@@ -173,8 +183,7 @@ impl S3Bucket {
        let started_at = start_counting_cancelled_wait(kind);
        let permit = self
            .concurrency_limiter
-            .clone()
-            .acquire_owned()
+            .acquire_owned(kind)
            .await
            .expect("semaphore is never closed");

@@ -307,13 +316,13 @@ impl<S: AsyncRead> AsyncRead for TimedDownload<S> {

 #[async_trait::async_trait]
 impl RemoteStorage for S3Bucket {
-    /// See the doc for `RemoteStorage::list_prefixes`
-    /// Note: it wont include empty "directories"
-    async fn list_prefixes(
+    async fn list(
        &self,
        prefix: Option<&RemotePath>,
-    ) -> Result<Vec<RemotePath>, DownloadError> {
+        mode: ListingMode,
+    ) -> Result<Listing, DownloadError> {
        let kind = RequestKind::List;
+        let mut result = Listing::default();

        // get the passed prefix or if it is not set use prefix_in_bucket value
        let list_prefix = prefix
@@ -322,28 +331,33 @@ impl RemoteStorage for S3Bucket {
            .map(|mut p| {
                // required to end with a separator
                // otherwise request will return only the entry of a prefix
-                if !p.ends_with(REMOTE_STORAGE_PREFIX_SEPARATOR) {
+                if matches!(mode, ListingMode::WithDelimiter)
+                    && !p.ends_with(REMOTE_STORAGE_PREFIX_SEPARATOR)
+                {
                    p.push(REMOTE_STORAGE_PREFIX_SEPARATOR);
                }
                p
            });

-        let mut document_keys = Vec::new();
-
        let mut continuation_token = None;

        loop {
            let _guard = self.permit(kind).await;
            let started_at = start_measuring_requests(kind);

-            let fetch_response = self
+            let mut request = self
                .client
                .list_objects_v2()
                .bucket(self.bucket_name.clone())
                .set_prefix(list_prefix.clone())
                .set_continuation_token(continuation_token)
-                .delimiter(REMOTE_STORAGE_PREFIX_SEPARATOR.to_string())
-                .set_max_keys(self.max_keys_per_list_response)
+                .set_max_keys(self.max_keys_per_list_response);
+
+            if let ListingMode::WithDelimiter = mode {
+                request = request.delimiter(REMOTE_STORAGE_PREFIX_SEPARATOR.to_string());
+            }
+
+            let response = request
                .send()
                .await
                .context("Failed to list S3 prefixes")
@@ -353,71 +367,35 @@ impl RemoteStorage for S3Bucket {

            metrics::BUCKET_METRICS
                .req_seconds
-                .observe_elapsed(kind, &fetch_response, started_at);
+                .observe_elapsed(kind, &response, started_at);

-            let fetch_response = fetch_response?;
+            let response = response?;

-            document_keys.extend(
-                fetch_response
-                    .common_prefixes
-                    .unwrap_or_default()
-                    .into_iter()
+            let keys = response.contents().unwrap_or_default();
+            let empty = Vec::new();
+            let prefixes = response.common_prefixes.as_ref().unwrap_or(&empty);
+
+            tracing::info!("list: {} prefixes, {} keys", prefixes.len(), keys.len());
+
+            for object in keys {
+                let object_path = object.key().expect("response does not contain a key");
+                let remote_path = self.s3_object_to_relative_path(object_path);
+                result.keys.push(remote_path);
+            }
+
+            result.prefixes.extend(
+                prefixes
+                    .iter()
                    .filter_map(|o| Some(self.s3_object_to_relative_path(o.prefix()?))),
            );

-            continuation_token = match fetch_response.next_continuation_token {
+            continuation_token = match response.next_continuation_token {
                Some(new_token) => Some(new_token),
                None => break,
            };
        }

-        Ok(document_keys)
-    }
-
-    /// See the doc for `RemoteStorage::list_files`
-    async fn list_files(&self, folder: Option<&RemotePath>) -> anyhow::Result<Vec<RemotePath>> {
-        let kind = RequestKind::List;
-
-        let folder_name = folder
-            .map(|p| self.relative_path_to_s3_object(p))
-            .or_else(|| self.prefix_in_bucket.clone());
-
-        // AWS may need to break the response into several parts
-        let mut continuation_token = None;
-        let mut all_files = vec![];
-        loop {
-            let _guard = self.permit(kind).await;
-            let started_at = start_measuring_requests(kind);
-
-            let response = self
-                .client
-                .list_objects_v2()
-                .bucket(self.bucket_name.clone())
-                .set_prefix(folder_name.clone())
-                .set_continuation_token(continuation_token)
-                .set_max_keys(self.max_keys_per_list_response)
-                .send()
-                .await
-                .context("Failed to list files in S3 bucket");
-
-            let started_at = ScopeGuard::into_inner(started_at);
-            metrics::BUCKET_METRICS
-                .req_seconds
-                .observe_elapsed(kind, &response, started_at);
-
-            let response = response?;
-
-            for object in response.contents().unwrap_or_default() {
-                let object_path = object.key().expect("response does not contain a key");
-                let remote_path = self.s3_object_to_relative_path(object_path);
-                all_files.push(remote_path);
-            }
-            match response.next_continuation_token {
-                Some(new_token) => continuation_token = Some(new_token),
-                None => break,
-            }
-        }
-        Ok(all_files)
+        Ok(result)
    }

    async fn upload(
@@ -500,7 +478,7 @@ impl RemoteStorage for S3Bucket {
            delete_objects.push(obj_id);
        }

-        for chunk in delete_objects.chunks(MAX_DELETE_OBJECTS_REQUEST_SIZE) {
+        for chunk in delete_objects.chunks(MAX_KEYS_PER_DELETE) {
            let started_at = start_measuring_requests(kind);

            let resp = self
@@ -522,6 +500,20 @@ impl RemoteStorage for S3Bucket {
                        .deleted_objects_total
                        .inc_by(chunk.len() as u64);
                    if let Some(errors) = resp.errors {
+                        // Log a bounded number of the errors within the response:
+                        // these requests can carry 1000 keys so logging each one
+                        // would be too verbose, especially as errors may lead us
+                        // to retry repeatedly.
+                        const LOG_UP_TO_N_ERRORS: usize = 10;
+                        for e in errors.iter().take(LOG_UP_TO_N_ERRORS) {
+                            tracing::warn!(
+                                "DeleteObjects key {} failed: {}: {}",
+                                e.key.as_ref().map(Cow::from).unwrap_or("".into()),
+                                e.code.as_ref().map(Cow::from).unwrap_or("".into()),
+                                e.message.as_ref().map(Cow::from).unwrap_or("".into())
+                            );
+                        }
+
                        return Err(anyhow::format_err!(
                            "Failed to delete {} objects",
                            errors.len()
@@ -566,17 +558,17 @@ fn start_measuring_requests(

 #[cfg(test)]
 mod tests {
+    use camino::Utf8Path;
    use std::num::NonZeroUsize;
-    use std::path::Path;

    use crate::{RemotePath, S3Bucket, S3Config};

    #[test]
    fn relative_path() {
-        let all_paths = vec!["", "some/path", "some/path/"];
+        let all_paths = ["", "some/path", "some/path/"];
        let all_paths: Vec<RemotePath> = all_paths
            .iter()
-            .map(|x| RemotePath::new(Path::new(x)).expect("bad path"))
+            .map(|x| RemotePath::new(Utf8Path::new(x)).expect("bad path"))
            .collect();
        let prefixes = [
            None,
--- a/libs/remote_storage/src/s3_bucket/metrics.rs
+++ b/libs/remote_storage/src/s3_bucket/metrics.rs
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ use once_cell::sync::Lazy;
 pub(super) static BUCKET_METRICS: Lazy<BucketMetrics> = Lazy::new(Default::default);

 #[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug)]
-pub(super) enum RequestKind {
+pub(crate) enum RequestKind {
    Get = 0,
    Put = 1,
    Delete = 2,
--- a/libs/remote_storage/src/simulate_failures.rs
+++ b/libs/remote_storage/src/simulate_failures.rs
@@ -5,7 +5,9 @@ use std::collections::hash_map::Entry;
 use std::collections::HashMap;
 use std::sync::Mutex;

-use crate::{Download, DownloadError, RemotePath, RemoteStorage, StorageMetadata};
+use crate::{
+    Download, DownloadError, Listing, ListingMode, RemotePath, RemoteStorage, StorageMetadata,
+};

 pub struct UnreliableWrapper {
    inner: crate::GenericRemoteStorage,
@@ -95,6 +97,15 @@ impl RemoteStorage for UnreliableWrapper {
        self.inner.list_files(folder).await
    }

+    async fn list(
+        &self,
+        prefix: Option<&RemotePath>,
+        mode: ListingMode,
+    ) -> Result<Listing, DownloadError> {
+        self.attempt(RemoteOp::ListPrefixes(prefix.cloned()))?;
+        self.inner.list(prefix, mode).await
+    }
+
    async fn upload(
        &self,
        data: impl tokio::io::AsyncRead + Unpin + Send + Sync + 'static,
--- a/libs/remote_storage/tests/test_real_azure.rs
+++ b/libs/remote_storage/tests/test_real_azure.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,623 @@
+use std::collections::HashSet;
+use std::env;
+use std::num::NonZeroUsize;
+use std::ops::ControlFlow;
+use std::path::PathBuf;
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::UNIX_EPOCH;
+
+use anyhow::Context;
+use camino::Utf8Path;
+use once_cell::sync::OnceCell;
+use remote_storage::{
+    AzureConfig, Download, GenericRemoteStorage, RemotePath, RemoteStorageConfig, RemoteStorageKind,
+};
+use test_context::{test_context, AsyncTestContext};
+use tokio::task::JoinSet;
+use tracing::{debug, error, info};
+
+static LOGGING_DONE: OnceCell<()> = OnceCell::new();
+
+const ENABLE_REAL_AZURE_REMOTE_STORAGE_ENV_VAR_NAME: &str = "ENABLE_REAL_AZURE_REMOTE_STORAGE";
+
+const BASE_PREFIX: &str = "test";
+
+/// Tests that the Azure client can list all prefixes, even if the response comes paginated and requires multiple HTTP queries.
+/// Uses real Azure and requires [`ENABLE_REAL_AZURE_REMOTE_STORAGE_ENV_VAR_NAME`] and related Azure cred env vars specified.
+/// See the client creation in [`create_azure_client`] for details on the required env vars.
+/// If real Azure tests are disabled, the test passes, skipping any real test run: currently, there's no way to mark the test ignored in runtime with the
+/// deafult test framework, see https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/issues/68007 for details.
+///
+/// First, the test creates a set of Azure blobs with keys `/${random_prefix_part}/${base_prefix_str}/sub_prefix_${i}/blob_${i}` in [`upload_azure_data`]
+/// where
+/// * `random_prefix_part` is set for the entire Azure client during the Azure client creation in [`create_azure_client`], to avoid multiple test runs interference
+/// * `base_prefix_str` is a common prefix to use in the client requests: we would want to ensure that the client is able to list nested prefixes inside the bucket
+///
+/// Then, verifies that the client does return correct prefixes when queried:
+/// * with no prefix, it lists everything after its `${random_prefix_part}/` — that should be `${base_prefix_str}` value only
+/// * with `${base_prefix_str}/` prefix, it lists every `sub_prefix_${i}`
+///
+/// With the real Azure enabled and `#[cfg(test)]` Rust configuration used, the Azure client test adds a `max-keys` param to limit the response keys.
+/// This way, we are able to test the pagination implicitly, by ensuring all results are returned from the remote storage and avoid uploading too many blobs to Azure.
+///
+/// Lastly, the test attempts to clean up and remove all uploaded Azure files.
+/// If any errors appear during the clean up, they get logged, but the test is not failed or stopped until clean up is finished.
+#[test_context(MaybeEnabledAzureWithTestBlobs)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn azure_pagination_should_work(
+    ctx: &mut MaybeEnabledAzureWithTestBlobs,
+) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+    let ctx = match ctx {
+        MaybeEnabledAzureWithTestBlobs::Enabled(ctx) => ctx,
+        MaybeEnabledAzureWithTestBlobs::Disabled => return Ok(()),
+        MaybeEnabledAzureWithTestBlobs::UploadsFailed(e, _) => {
+            anyhow::bail!("Azure init failed: {e:?}")
+        }
+    };
+
+    let test_client = Arc::clone(&ctx.enabled.client);
+    let expected_remote_prefixes = ctx.remote_prefixes.clone();
+
+    let base_prefix = RemotePath::new(Utf8Path::new(ctx.enabled.base_prefix))
+        .context("common_prefix construction")?;
+    let root_remote_prefixes = test_client
+        .list_prefixes(None)
+        .await
+        .context("client list root prefixes failure")?
+        .into_iter()
+        .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+    assert_eq!(
+        root_remote_prefixes, HashSet::from([base_prefix.clone()]),
+        "remote storage root prefixes list mismatches with the uploads. Returned prefixes: {root_remote_prefixes:?}"
+    );
+
+    let nested_remote_prefixes = test_client
+        .list_prefixes(Some(&base_prefix))
+        .await
+        .context("client list nested prefixes failure")?
+        .into_iter()
+        .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+    let remote_only_prefixes = nested_remote_prefixes
+        .difference(&expected_remote_prefixes)
+        .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+    let missing_uploaded_prefixes = expected_remote_prefixes
+        .difference(&nested_remote_prefixes)
+        .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+    assert_eq!(
+        remote_only_prefixes.len() + missing_uploaded_prefixes.len(), 0,
+        "remote storage nested prefixes list mismatches with the uploads. Remote only prefixes: {remote_only_prefixes:?}, missing uploaded prefixes: {missing_uploaded_prefixes:?}",
+    );
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Tests that Azure client can list all files in a folder, even if the response comes paginated and requirees multiple Azure queries.
+/// Uses real Azure and requires [`ENABLE_REAL_AZURE_REMOTE_STORAGE_ENV_VAR_NAME`] and related Azure cred env vars specified. Test will skip real code and pass if env vars not set.
+/// See `Azure_pagination_should_work` for more information.
+///
+/// First, create a set of Azure objects with keys `random_prefix/folder{j}/blob_{i}.txt` in [`upload_azure_data`]
+/// Then performs the following queries:
+///    1. `list_files(None)`. This should return all files `random_prefix/folder{j}/blob_{i}.txt`
+///    2. `list_files("folder1")`.  This  should return all files `random_prefix/folder1/blob_{i}.txt`
+#[test_context(MaybeEnabledAzureWithSimpleTestBlobs)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn azure_list_files_works(
+    ctx: &mut MaybeEnabledAzureWithSimpleTestBlobs,
+) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+    let ctx = match ctx {
+        MaybeEnabledAzureWithSimpleTestBlobs::Enabled(ctx) => ctx,
+        MaybeEnabledAzureWithSimpleTestBlobs::Disabled => return Ok(()),
+        MaybeEnabledAzureWithSimpleTestBlobs::UploadsFailed(e, _) => {
+            anyhow::bail!("Azure init failed: {e:?}")
+        }
+    };
+    let test_client = Arc::clone(&ctx.enabled.client);
+    let base_prefix =
+        RemotePath::new(Utf8Path::new("folder1")).context("common_prefix construction")?;
+    let root_files = test_client
+        .list_files(None)
+        .await
+        .context("client list root files failure")?
+        .into_iter()
+        .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+    assert_eq!(
+        root_files,
+        ctx.remote_blobs.clone(),
+        "remote storage list_files on root mismatches with the uploads."
+    );
+    let nested_remote_files = test_client
+        .list_files(Some(&base_prefix))
+        .await
+        .context("client list nested files failure")?
+        .into_iter()
+        .collect::<HashSet<_>>();
+    let trim_remote_blobs: HashSet<_> = ctx
+        .remote_blobs
+        .iter()
+        .map(|x| x.get_path())
+        .filter(|x| x.starts_with("folder1"))
+        .map(|x| RemotePath::new(x).expect("must be valid path"))
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(
+        nested_remote_files, trim_remote_blobs,
+        "remote storage list_files on subdirrectory mismatches with the uploads."
+    );
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[test_context(MaybeEnabledAzure)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn azure_delete_non_exising_works(ctx: &mut MaybeEnabledAzure) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+    let ctx = match ctx {
+        MaybeEnabledAzure::Enabled(ctx) => ctx,
+        MaybeEnabledAzure::Disabled => return Ok(()),
+    };
+
+    let path = RemotePath::new(Utf8Path::new(
+        format!("{}/for_sure_there_is_nothing_there_really", ctx.base_prefix).as_str(),
+    ))
+    .with_context(|| "RemotePath conversion")?;
+
+    ctx.client.delete(&path).await.expect("should succeed");
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[test_context(MaybeEnabledAzure)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn azure_delete_objects_works(ctx: &mut MaybeEnabledAzure) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+    let ctx = match ctx {
+        MaybeEnabledAzure::Enabled(ctx) => ctx,
+        MaybeEnabledAzure::Disabled => return Ok(()),
+    };
+
+    let path1 = RemotePath::new(Utf8Path::new(format!("{}/path1", ctx.base_prefix).as_str()))
+        .with_context(|| "RemotePath conversion")?;
+
+    let path2 = RemotePath::new(Utf8Path::new(format!("{}/path2", ctx.base_prefix).as_str()))
+        .with_context(|| "RemotePath conversion")?;
+
+    let path3 = RemotePath::new(Utf8Path::new(format!("{}/path3", ctx.base_prefix).as_str()))
+        .with_context(|| "RemotePath conversion")?;
+
+    let data1 = "remote blob data1".as_bytes();
+    let data1_len = data1.len();
+    let data2 = "remote blob data2".as_bytes();
+    let data2_len = data2.len();
+    let data3 = "remote blob data3".as_bytes();
+    let data3_len = data3.len();
+    ctx.client
+        .upload(std::io::Cursor::new(data1), data1_len, &path1, None)
+        .await?;
+
+    ctx.client
+        .upload(std::io::Cursor::new(data2), data2_len, &path2, None)
+        .await?;
+
+    ctx.client
+        .upload(std::io::Cursor::new(data3), data3_len, &path3, None)
+        .await?;
+
+    ctx.client.delete_objects(&[path1, path2]).await?;
+
+    let prefixes = ctx.client.list_prefixes(None).await?;
+
+    assert_eq!(prefixes.len(), 1);
+
+    ctx.client.delete_objects(&[path3]).await?;
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[test_context(MaybeEnabledAzure)]
+#[tokio::test]
+async fn azure_upload_download_works(ctx: &mut MaybeEnabledAzure) -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+    let MaybeEnabledAzure::Enabled(ctx) = ctx else {
+        return Ok(());
+    };
+
+    let path = RemotePath::new(Utf8Path::new(format!("{}/file", ctx.base_prefix).as_str()))
+        .with_context(|| "RemotePath conversion")?;
+
+    let data = "remote blob data here".as_bytes();
+    let data_len = data.len() as u64;
+
+    ctx.client
+        .upload(std::io::Cursor::new(data), data.len(), &path, None)
+        .await?;
+
+    async fn download_and_compare(mut dl: Download) -> anyhow::Result<Vec<u8>> {
+        let mut buf = Vec::new();
+        tokio::io::copy(&mut dl.download_stream, &mut buf).await?;
+        Ok(buf)
+    }
+    // Normal download request
+    let dl = ctx.client.download(&path).await?;
+    let buf = download_and_compare(dl).await?;
+    assert_eq!(buf, data);
+
+    // Full range (end specified)
+    let dl = ctx
+        .client
+        .download_byte_range(&path, 0, Some(data_len))
+        .await?;
+    let buf = download_and_compare(dl).await?;
+    assert_eq!(buf, data);
+
+    // partial range (end specified)
+    let dl = ctx.client.download_byte_range(&path, 4, Some(10)).await?;
+    let buf = download_and_compare(dl).await?;
+    assert_eq!(buf, data[4..10]);
+
+    // partial range (end beyond real end)
+    let dl = ctx
+        .client
+        .download_byte_range(&path, 8, Some(data_len * 100))
+        .await?;
+    let buf = download_and_compare(dl).await?;
+    assert_eq!(buf, data[8..]);
+
+    // Partial range (end unspecified)
+    let dl = ctx.client.download_byte_range(&path, 4, None).await?;
+    let buf = download_and_compare(dl).await?;
+    assert_eq!(buf, data[4..]);
+
+    // Full range (end unspecified)
+    let dl = ctx.client.download_byte_range(&path, 0, None).await?;
+    let buf = download_and_compare(dl).await?;
+    assert_eq!(buf, data);
+
+    debug!("Cleanup: deleting file at path {path:?}");
+    ctx.client
+        .delete(&path)
+        .await
+        .with_context(|| format!("{path:?} removal"))?;
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn ensure_logging_ready() {
+    LOGGING_DONE.get_or_init(|| {
+        utils::logging::init(
+            utils::logging::LogFormat::Test,
+            utils::logging::TracingErrorLayerEnablement::Disabled,
+        )
+        .expect("logging init failed");
+    });
+}
+
+struct EnabledAzure {
+    client: Arc<GenericRemoteStorage>,
+    base_prefix: &'static str,
+}
+
+impl EnabledAzure {
+    async fn setup(max_keys_in_list_response: Option<i32>) -> Self {
+        let client = create_azure_client(max_keys_in_list_response)
+            .context("Azure client creation")
+            .expect("Azure client creation failed");
+
+        EnabledAzure {
+            client,
+            base_prefix: BASE_PREFIX,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+enum MaybeEnabledAzure {
+    Enabled(EnabledAzure),
+    Disabled,
+}
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl AsyncTestContext for MaybeEnabledAzure {
+    async fn setup() -> Self {
+        ensure_logging_ready();
+
+        if env::var(ENABLE_REAL_AZURE_REMOTE_STORAGE_ENV_VAR_NAME).is_err() {
+            info!(
+                "`{}` env variable is not set, skipping the test",
+                ENABLE_REAL_AZURE_REMOTE_STORAGE_ENV_VAR_NAME
+            );
+            return Self::Disabled;
+        }
+
+        Self::Enabled(EnabledAzure::setup(None).await)
+    }
+}
+
+enum MaybeEnabledAzureWithTestBlobs {
+    Enabled(AzureWithTestBlobs),
+    Disabled,
+    UploadsFailed(anyhow::Error, AzureWithTestBlobs),
+}
+
+struct AzureWithTestBlobs {
+    enabled: EnabledAzure,
+    remote_prefixes: HashSet<RemotePath>,
+    remote_blobs: HashSet<RemotePath>,
+}
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl AsyncTestContext for MaybeEnabledAzureWithTestBlobs {
+    async fn setup() -> Self {
+        ensure_logging_ready();
+        if env::var(ENABLE_REAL_AZURE_REMOTE_STORAGE_ENV_VAR_NAME).is_err() {
+            info!(
+                "`{}` env variable is not set, skipping the test",
+                ENABLE_REAL_AZURE_REMOTE_STORAGE_ENV_VAR_NAME
+            );
+            return Self::Disabled;
+        }
+
+        let max_keys_in_list_response = 10;
+        let upload_tasks_count = 1 + (2 * usize::try_from(max_keys_in_list_response).unwrap());
+
+        let enabled = EnabledAzure::setup(Some(max_keys_in_list_response)).await;
+
+        match upload_azure_data(&enabled.client, enabled.base_prefix, upload_tasks_count).await {
+            ControlFlow::Continue(uploads) => {
+                info!("Remote objects created successfully");
+
+                Self::Enabled(AzureWithTestBlobs {
+                    enabled,
+                    remote_prefixes: uploads.prefixes,
+                    remote_blobs: uploads.blobs,
+                })
+            }
+            ControlFlow::Break(uploads) => Self::UploadsFailed(
+                anyhow::anyhow!("One or multiple blobs failed to upload to Azure"),
+                AzureWithTestBlobs {
+                    enabled,
+                    remote_prefixes: uploads.prefixes,
+                    remote_blobs: uploads.blobs,
+                },
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn teardown(self) {
+        match self {
+            Self::Disabled => {}
+            Self::Enabled(ctx) | Self::UploadsFailed(_, ctx) => {
+                cleanup(&ctx.enabled.client, ctx.remote_blobs).await;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// NOTE: the setups for the list_prefixes test and the list_files test are very similar
+// However, they are not idential. The list_prefixes function is concerned with listing prefixes,
+// whereas the list_files function is concerned with listing files.
+// See `RemoteStorage::list_files` documentation for more details
+enum MaybeEnabledAzureWithSimpleTestBlobs {
+    Enabled(AzureWithSimpleTestBlobs),
+    Disabled,
+    UploadsFailed(anyhow::Error, AzureWithSimpleTestBlobs),
+}
+struct AzureWithSimpleTestBlobs {
+    enabled: EnabledAzure,
+    remote_blobs: HashSet<RemotePath>,
+}
+
+#[async_trait::async_trait]
+impl AsyncTestContext for MaybeEnabledAzureWithSimpleTestBlobs {
+    async fn setup() -> Self {
+        ensure_logging_ready();
+        if env::var(ENABLE_REAL_AZURE_REMOTE_STORAGE_ENV_VAR_NAME).is_err() {
+            info!(
+                "`{}` env variable is not set, skipping the test",
+                ENABLE_REAL_AZURE_REMOTE_STORAGE_ENV_VAR_NAME
+            );
+            return Self::Disabled;
+        }
+
+        let max_keys_in_list_response = 10;
+        let upload_tasks_count = 1 + (2 * usize::try_from(max_keys_in_list_response).unwrap());
+
+        let enabled = EnabledAzure::setup(Some(max_keys_in_list_response)).await;
+
+        match upload_simple_azure_data(&enabled.client, upload_tasks_count).await {
+            ControlFlow::Continue(uploads) => {
+                info!("Remote objects created successfully");
+
+                Self::Enabled(AzureWithSimpleTestBlobs {
+                    enabled,
+                    remote_blobs: uploads,
+                })
+            }
+            ControlFlow::Break(uploads) => Self::UploadsFailed(
+                anyhow::anyhow!("One or multiple blobs failed to upload to Azure"),
+                AzureWithSimpleTestBlobs {
+                    enabled,
+                    remote_blobs: uploads,
+                },
+            ),
+        }
+    }
+
+    async fn teardown(self) {
+        match self {
+            Self::Disabled => {}
+            Self::Enabled(ctx) | Self::UploadsFailed(_, ctx) => {
+                cleanup(&ctx.enabled.client, ctx.remote_blobs).await;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn create_azure_client(
+    max_keys_per_list_response: Option<i32>,
+) -> anyhow::Result<Arc<GenericRemoteStorage>> {
+    use rand::Rng;
+
+    let remote_storage_azure_container = env::var("REMOTE_STORAGE_AZURE_CONTAINER").context(
+        "`REMOTE_STORAGE_AZURE_CONTAINER` env var is not set, but real Azure tests are enabled",
+    )?;
+    let remote_storage_azure_region = env::var("REMOTE_STORAGE_AZURE_REGION").context(
+        "`REMOTE_STORAGE_AZURE_REGION` env var is not set, but real Azure tests are enabled",
+    )?;
+
+    // due to how time works, we've had test runners use the same nanos as bucket prefixes.
+    // millis is just a debugging aid for easier finding the prefix later.
+    let millis = std::time::SystemTime::now()
+        .duration_since(UNIX_EPOCH)
+        .context("random Azure test prefix part calculation")?
+        .as_millis();
+
+    // because nanos can be the same for two threads so can millis, add randomness
+    let random = rand::thread_rng().gen::<u32>();
+
+    let remote_storage_config = RemoteStorageConfig {
+        storage: RemoteStorageKind::AzureContainer(AzureConfig {
+            container_name: remote_storage_azure_container,
+            container_region: remote_storage_azure_region,
+            prefix_in_container: Some(format!("test_{millis}_{random:08x}/")),
+            concurrency_limit: NonZeroUsize::new(100).unwrap(),
+            max_keys_per_list_response,
+        }),
+    };
+    Ok(Arc::new(
+        GenericRemoteStorage::from_config(&remote_storage_config).context("remote storage init")?,
+    ))
+}
+
+struct Uploads {
+    prefixes: HashSet<RemotePath>,
+    blobs: HashSet<RemotePath>,
+}
+
+async fn upload_azure_data(
+    client: &Arc<GenericRemoteStorage>,
+    base_prefix_str: &'static str,
+    upload_tasks_count: usize,
+) -> ControlFlow<Uploads, Uploads> {
+    info!("Creating {upload_tasks_count} Azure files");
+    let mut upload_tasks = JoinSet::new();
+    for i in 1..upload_tasks_count + 1 {
+        let task_client = Arc::clone(client);
+        upload_tasks.spawn(async move {
+            let prefix = format!("{base_prefix_str}/sub_prefix_{i}/");
+            let blob_prefix = RemotePath::new(Utf8Path::new(&prefix))
+                .with_context(|| format!("{prefix:?} to RemotePath conversion"))?;
+            let blob_path = blob_prefix.join(Utf8Path::new(&format!("blob_{i}")));
+            debug!("Creating remote item {i} at path {blob_path:?}");
+
+            let data = format!("remote blob data {i}").into_bytes();
+            let data_len = data.len();
+            task_client
+                .upload(std::io::Cursor::new(data), data_len, &blob_path, None)
+                .await?;
+
+            Ok::<_, anyhow::Error>((blob_prefix, blob_path))
+        });
+    }
+
+    let mut upload_tasks_failed = false;
+    let mut uploaded_prefixes = HashSet::with_capacity(upload_tasks_count);
+    let mut uploaded_blobs = HashSet::with_capacity(upload_tasks_count);
+    while let Some(task_run_result) = upload_tasks.join_next().await {
+        match task_run_result
+            .context("task join failed")
+            .and_then(|task_result| task_result.context("upload task failed"))
+        {
+            Ok((upload_prefix, upload_path)) => {
+                uploaded_prefixes.insert(upload_prefix);
+                uploaded_blobs.insert(upload_path);
+            }
+            Err(e) => {
+                error!("Upload task failed: {e:?}");
+                upload_tasks_failed = true;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    let uploads = Uploads {
+        prefixes: uploaded_prefixes,
+        blobs: uploaded_blobs,
+    };
+    if upload_tasks_failed {
+        ControlFlow::Break(uploads)
+    } else {
+        ControlFlow::Continue(uploads)
+    }
+}
+
+async fn cleanup(client: &Arc<GenericRemoteStorage>, objects_to_delete: HashSet<RemotePath>) {
+    info!(
+        "Removing {} objects from the remote storage during cleanup",
+        objects_to_delete.len()
+    );
+    let mut delete_tasks = JoinSet::new();
+    for object_to_delete in objects_to_delete {
+        let task_client = Arc::clone(client);
+        delete_tasks.spawn(async move {
+            debug!("Deleting remote item at path {object_to_delete:?}");
+            task_client
+                .delete(&object_to_delete)
+                .await
+                .with_context(|| format!("{object_to_delete:?} removal"))
+        });
+    }
+
+    while let Some(task_run_result) = delete_tasks.join_next().await {
+        match task_run_result {
+            Ok(task_result) => match task_result {
+                Ok(()) => {}
+                Err(e) => error!("Delete task failed: {e:?}"),
+            },
+            Err(join_err) => error!("Delete task did not finish correctly: {join_err}"),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+// Uploads files `folder{j}/blob{i}.txt`. See test description for more details.
+async fn upload_simple_azure_data(
+    client: &Arc<GenericRemoteStorage>,
+    upload_tasks_count: usize,
+) -> ControlFlow<HashSet<RemotePath>, HashSet<RemotePath>> {
+    info!("Creating {upload_tasks_count} Azure files");
+    let mut upload_tasks = JoinSet::new();
+    for i in 1..upload_tasks_count + 1 {
+        let task_client = Arc::clone(client);
+        upload_tasks.spawn(async move {
+            let blob_path = PathBuf::from(format!("folder{}/blob_{}.txt", i / 7, i));
+            let blob_path = RemotePath::new(
+                Utf8Path::from_path(blob_path.as_path()).expect("must be valid blob path"),
+            )
+            .with_context(|| format!("{blob_path:?} to RemotePath conversion"))?;
+            debug!("Creating remote item {i} at path {blob_path:?}");
+
+            let data = format!("remote blob data {i}").into_bytes();
+            let data_len = data.len();
+            task_client
+                .upload(std::io::Cursor::new(data), data_len, &blob_path, None)
+                .await?;
+
+            Ok::<_, anyhow::Error>(blob_path)
+        });
+    }
+
+    let mut upload_tasks_failed = false;
+    let mut uploaded_blobs = HashSet::with_capacity(upload_tasks_count);
+    while let Some(task_run_result) = upload_tasks.join_next().await {
+        match task_run_result
+            .context("task join failed")
+            .and_then(|task_result| task_result.context("upload task failed"))
+        {
+            Ok(upload_path) => {
+                uploaded_blobs.insert(upload_path);
+            }
+            Err(e) => {
+                error!("Upload task failed: {e:?}");
+                upload_tasks_failed = true;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    if upload_tasks_failed {
+        ControlFlow::Break(uploaded_blobs)
+    } else {
+        ControlFlow::Continue(uploaded_blobs)
+    }
+}
--- a/libs/remote_storage/tests/test_real_s3.rs
+++ b/libs/remote_storage/tests/test_real_s3.rs
@@ -1,12 +1,13 @@
 use std::collections::HashSet;
 use std::env;
-use std::num::{NonZeroU32, NonZeroUsize};
+use std::num::NonZeroUsize;
 use std::ops::ControlFlow;
-use std::path::{Path, PathBuf};
+use std::path::PathBuf;
 use std::sync::Arc;
 use std::time::UNIX_EPOCH;

 use anyhow::Context;
+use camino::Utf8Path;
 use once_cell::sync::OnceCell;
 use remote_storage::{
    GenericRemoteStorage, RemotePath, RemoteStorageConfig, RemoteStorageKind, S3Config,
@@ -55,7 +56,7 @@ async fn s3_pagination_should_work(ctx: &mut MaybeEnabledS3WithTestBlobs) -> any
    let test_client = Arc::clone(&ctx.enabled.client);
    let expected_remote_prefixes = ctx.remote_prefixes.clone();

-    let base_prefix = RemotePath::new(Path::new(ctx.enabled.base_prefix))
+    let base_prefix = RemotePath::new(Utf8Path::new(ctx.enabled.base_prefix))
        .context("common_prefix construction")?;
    let root_remote_prefixes = test_client
        .list_prefixes(None)
@@ -108,7 +109,7 @@ async fn s3_list_files_works(ctx: &mut MaybeEnabledS3WithSimpleTestBlobs) -> any
    };
    let test_client = Arc::clone(&ctx.enabled.client);
    let base_prefix =
-        RemotePath::new(Path::new("folder1")).context("common_prefix construction")?;
+        RemotePath::new(Utf8Path::new("folder1")).context("common_prefix construction")?;
    let root_files = test_client
        .list_files(None)
        .await
@@ -129,9 +130,9 @@ async fn s3_list_files_works(ctx: &mut MaybeEnabledS3WithSimpleTestBlobs) -> any
    let trim_remote_blobs: HashSet<_> = ctx
        .remote_blobs
        .iter()
-        .map(|x| x.get_path().to_str().expect("must be valid name"))
+        .map(|x| x.get_path())
        .filter(|x| x.starts_with("folder1"))
-        .map(|x| RemotePath::new(Path::new(x)).expect("must be valid name"))
+        .map(|x| RemotePath::new(x).expect("must be valid path"))
        .collect();
    assert_eq!(
        nested_remote_files, trim_remote_blobs,
@@ -148,10 +149,9 @@ async fn s3_delete_non_exising_works(ctx: &mut MaybeEnabledS3) -> anyhow::Result
        MaybeEnabledS3::Disabled => return Ok(()),
    };

-    let path = RemotePath::new(&PathBuf::from(format!(
-        "{}/for_sure_there_is_nothing_there_really",
-        ctx.base_prefix,
-    )))
+    let path = RemotePath::new(Utf8Path::new(
+        format!("{}/for_sure_there_is_nothing_there_really", ctx.base_prefix).as_str(),
+    ))
    .with_context(|| "RemotePath conversion")?;

    ctx.client.delete(&path).await.expect("should succeed");
@@ -167,13 +167,13 @@ async fn s3_delete_objects_works(ctx: &mut MaybeEnabledS3) -> anyhow::Result<()>
        MaybeEnabledS3::Disabled => return Ok(()),
    };

-    let path1 = RemotePath::new(&PathBuf::from(format!("{}/path1", ctx.base_prefix,)))
+    let path1 = RemotePath::new(Utf8Path::new(format!("{}/path1", ctx.base_prefix).as_str()))
        .with_context(|| "RemotePath conversion")?;

-    let path2 = RemotePath::new(&PathBuf::from(format!("{}/path2", ctx.base_prefix,)))
+    let path2 = RemotePath::new(Utf8Path::new(format!("{}/path2", ctx.base_prefix).as_str()))
        .with_context(|| "RemotePath conversion")?;

-    let path3 = RemotePath::new(&PathBuf::from(format!("{}/path3", ctx.base_prefix,)))
+    let path3 = RemotePath::new(Utf8Path::new(format!("{}/path3", ctx.base_prefix).as_str()))
        .with_context(|| "RemotePath conversion")?;

    let data1 = "remote blob data1".as_bytes();
@@ -378,21 +378,28 @@ impl AsyncTestContext for MaybeEnabledS3WithSimpleTestBlobs {
 fn create_s3_client(
    max_keys_per_list_response: Option<i32>,
 ) -> anyhow::Result<Arc<GenericRemoteStorage>> {
+    use rand::Rng;
+
    let remote_storage_s3_bucket = env::var("REMOTE_STORAGE_S3_BUCKET")
        .context("`REMOTE_STORAGE_S3_BUCKET` env var is not set, but real S3 tests are enabled")?;
    let remote_storage_s3_region = env::var("REMOTE_STORAGE_S3_REGION")
        .context("`REMOTE_STORAGE_S3_REGION` env var is not set, but real S3 tests are enabled")?;
-    let random_prefix_part = std::time::SystemTime::now()
+
+    // due to how time works, we've had test runners use the same nanos as bucket prefixes.
+    // millis is just a debugging aid for easier finding the prefix later.
+    let millis = std::time::SystemTime::now()
        .duration_since(UNIX_EPOCH)
        .context("random s3 test prefix part calculation")?
-        .as_nanos();
+        .as_millis();
+
+    // because nanos can be the same for two threads so can millis, add randomness
+    let random = rand::thread_rng().gen::<u32>();
+
    let remote_storage_config = RemoteStorageConfig {
-        max_concurrent_syncs: NonZeroUsize::new(100).unwrap(),
-        max_sync_errors: NonZeroU32::new(5).unwrap(),
        storage: RemoteStorageKind::AwsS3(S3Config {
            bucket_name: remote_storage_s3_bucket,
            bucket_region: remote_storage_s3_region,
-            prefix_in_bucket: Some(format!("pagination_should_work_test_{random_prefix_part}/")),
+            prefix_in_bucket: Some(format!("test_{millis}_{random:08x}/")),
            endpoint: None,
            concurrency_limit: NonZeroUsize::new(100).unwrap(),
            max_keys_per_list_response,
@@ -418,10 +425,10 @@ async fn upload_s3_data(
    for i in 1..upload_tasks_count + 1 {
        let task_client = Arc::clone(client);
        upload_tasks.spawn(async move {
-            let prefix = PathBuf::from(format!("{base_prefix_str}/sub_prefix_{i}/"));
-            let blob_prefix = RemotePath::new(&prefix)
+            let prefix = format!("{base_prefix_str}/sub_prefix_{i}/");
+            let blob_prefix = RemotePath::new(Utf8Path::new(&prefix))
                .with_context(|| format!("{prefix:?} to RemotePath conversion"))?;
-            let blob_path = blob_prefix.join(Path::new(&format!("blob_{i}")));
+            let blob_path = blob_prefix.join(Utf8Path::new(&format!("blob_{i}")));
            debug!("Creating remote item {i} at path {blob_path:?}");

            let data = format!("remote blob data {i}").into_bytes();
@@ -503,8 +510,10 @@ async fn upload_simple_s3_data(
        let task_client = Arc::clone(client);
        upload_tasks.spawn(async move {
            let blob_path = PathBuf::from(format!("folder{}/blob_{}.txt", i / 7, i));
-            let blob_path = RemotePath::new(&blob_path)
-                .with_context(|| format!("{blob_path:?} to RemotePath conversion"))?;
+            let blob_path = RemotePath::new(
+                Utf8Path::from_path(blob_path.as_path()).expect("must be valid blob path"),
+            )
+            .with_context(|| format!("{blob_path:?} to RemotePath conversion"))?;
            debug!("Creating remote item {i} at path {blob_path:?}");

            let data = format!("remote blob data {i}").into_bytes();
--- a/libs/safekeeper_api/src/lib.rs
+++ b/libs/safekeeper_api/src/lib.rs
@@ -1,3 +1,5 @@
+#![deny(unsafe_code)]
+#![deny(clippy::undocumented_unsafe_blocks)]
 use const_format::formatcp;

 /// Public API types
--- a/libs/safekeeper_api/src/models.rs
+++ b/libs/safekeeper_api/src/models.rs
@@ -1,23 +1,18 @@
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use serde_with::{serde_as, DisplayFromStr};

 use utils::{
    id::{NodeId, TenantId, TimelineId},
    lsn::Lsn,
 };

-#[serde_as]
 #[derive(Serialize, Deserialize)]
 pub struct TimelineCreateRequest {
-    #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
    pub tenant_id: TenantId,
-    #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
    pub timeline_id: TimelineId,
    pub peer_ids: Option<Vec<NodeId>>,
    pub pg_version: u32,
    pub system_id: Option<u64>,
    pub wal_seg_size: Option<u32>,
-    #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
    pub commit_lsn: Lsn,
    // If not passed, it is assigned to the beginning of commit_lsn segment.
    pub local_start_lsn: Option<Lsn>,
@@ -28,34 +23,31 @@ fn lsn_invalid() -> Lsn {
 }

 /// Data about safekeeper's timeline, mirrors broker.proto.
-#[serde_as]
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Deserialize, Serialize)]
 pub struct SkTimelineInfo {
+    /// Term.
+    pub term: Option<u64>,
    /// Term of the last entry.
    pub last_log_term: Option<u64>,
    /// LSN of the last record.
-    #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
    #[serde(default = "lsn_invalid")]
    pub flush_lsn: Lsn,
    /// Up to which LSN safekeeper regards its WAL as committed.
-    #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
    #[serde(default = "lsn_invalid")]
    pub commit_lsn: Lsn,
    /// LSN up to which safekeeper has backed WAL.
-    #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
    #[serde(default = "lsn_invalid")]
    pub backup_lsn: Lsn,
    /// LSN of last checkpoint uploaded by pageserver.
-    #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
    #[serde(default = "lsn_invalid")]
    pub remote_consistent_lsn: Lsn,
-    #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
    #[serde(default = "lsn_invalid")]
    pub peer_horizon_lsn: Lsn,
-    #[serde_as(as = "DisplayFromStr")]
    #[serde(default = "lsn_invalid")]
    pub local_start_lsn: Lsn,
    /// A connection string to use for WAL receiving.
    #[serde(default)]
    pub safekeeper_connstr: Option<String>,
+    #[serde(default)]
+    pub http_connstr: Option<String>,
 }
--- a/libs/tenant_size_model/src/lib.rs
+++ b/libs/tenant_size_model/src/lib.rs
@@ -1,4 +1,6 @@
 //! Synthetic size calculation
+#![deny(unsafe_code)]
+#![deny(clippy::undocumented_unsafe_blocks)]

 mod calculation;
 pub mod svg;
--- a/libs/tracing-utils/src/lib.rs
+++ b/libs/tracing-utils/src/lib.rs
@@ -32,6 +32,8 @@
 //!         .init();
 //! }
 //! ```
+#![deny(unsafe_code)]
+#![deny(clippy::undocumented_unsafe_blocks)]

 use opentelemetry::sdk::Resource;
 use opentelemetry::KeyValue;
--- a/libs/utils/Cargo.toml
+++ b/libs/utils/Cargo.toml
@@ -5,11 +5,13 @@ edition.workspace = true
 license.workspace = true

 [dependencies]
+arc-swap.workspace = true
 sentry.workspace = true
 async-trait.workspace = true
 anyhow.workspace = true
 bincode.workspace = true
 bytes.workspace = true
+camino.workspace = true
 chrono.workspace = true
 heapless.workspace = true
 hex = { workspace = true, features = ["serde"] }
@@ -26,6 +28,7 @@ serde_json.workspace = true
 signal-hook.workspace = true
 thiserror.workspace = true
 tokio.workspace = true
+tokio-util.workspace = true
 tracing.workspace = true
 tracing-error.workspace = true
 tracing-subscriber = { workspace = true, features = ["json", "registry"] }
@@ -37,6 +40,7 @@ url.workspace = true
 uuid.workspace = true

 pq_proto.workspace = true
+postgres_connection.workspace = true
 metrics.workspace = true
 workspace_hack.workspace = true

@@ -51,7 +55,8 @@ byteorder.workspace = true
 bytes.workspace = true
 criterion.workspace = true
 hex-literal.workspace = true
-tempfile.workspace = true
+camino-tempfile.workspace = true
+serde_assert.workspace = true

 [[bench]]
 name = "benchmarks"
--- a/libs/utils/scripts/restore_from_wal.sh
+++ b/libs/utils/scripts/restore_from_wal.sh
@@ -9,11 +9,12 @@ PORT=$4
 SYSID=$(od -A n -j 24 -N 8 -t d8 "$WAL_PATH"/000000010000000000000002* | cut -c 3-)
 rm -fr "$DATA_DIR"
 env -i LD_LIBRARY_PATH="$PG_BIN"/../lib "$PG_BIN"/initdb -E utf8 -U cloud_admin -D "$DATA_DIR" --sysid="$SYSID"
-echo port="$PORT" >> "$DATA_DIR"/postgresql.conf
+echo "port=$PORT" >> "$DATA_DIR"/postgresql.conf
+echo "shared_preload_libraries='\$libdir/neon_rmgr.so'" >> "$DATA_DIR"/postgresql.conf
 REDO_POS=0x$("$PG_BIN"/pg_controldata -D "$DATA_DIR" | grep -F "REDO location"| cut -c 42-)
 declare -i WAL_SIZE=$REDO_POS+114
-"$PG_BIN"/pg_ctl -D "$DATA_DIR" -l logfile start
-"$PG_BIN"/pg_ctl -D "$DATA_DIR" -l logfile stop -m immediate
+"$PG_BIN"/pg_ctl -D "$DATA_DIR" -l "$DATA_DIR/logfile.log" start
+"$PG_BIN"/pg_ctl -D "$DATA_DIR" -l "$DATA_DIR/logfile.log" stop -m immediate
 cp "$DATA_DIR"/pg_wal/000000010000000000000001 .
 cp "$WAL_PATH"/* "$DATA_DIR"/pg_wal/
 for partial in "$DATA_DIR"/pg_wal/*.partial ; do mv "$partial" "${partial%.partial}" ; done
--- a/libs/utils/src/auth.rs
+++ b/libs/utils/src/auth.rs
@@ -1,17 +1,17 @@
 // For details about authentication see docs/authentication.md

+use arc_swap::ArcSwap;
 use serde;
-use std::fs;
-use std::path::Path;
+use std::{borrow::Cow, fmt::Display, fs, sync::Arc};

 use anyhow::Result;
+use camino::Utf8Path;
 use jsonwebtoken::{
    decode, encode, Algorithm, DecodingKey, EncodingKey, Header, TokenData, Validation,
 };
 use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
-use serde_with::{serde_as, DisplayFromStr};

-use crate::id::TenantId;
+use crate::{http::error::ApiError, id::TenantId};

 /// Algorithm to use. We require EdDSA.
 const STORAGE_TOKEN_ALGORITHM: Algorithm = Algorithm::EdDSA;
@@ -32,11 +32,9 @@ pub enum Scope {
 }

 /// JWT payload. See docs/authentication.md for the format
-#[serde_as]
 #[derive(Debug, Serialize, Deserialize, Clone, PartialEq)]
 pub struct Claims {
    #[serde(default)]
-    #[serde_as(as = "Option<DisplayFromStr>")]
    pub tenant_id: Option<TenantId>,
    pub scope: Scope,
 }
@@ -47,31 +45,106 @@ impl Claims {
    }
 }

+pub struct SwappableJwtAuth(ArcSwap<JwtAuth>);
+
+impl SwappableJwtAuth {
+    pub fn new(jwt_auth: JwtAuth) -> Self {
+        SwappableJwtAuth(ArcSwap::new(Arc::new(jwt_auth)))
+    }
+    pub fn swap(&self, jwt_auth: JwtAuth) {
+        self.0.swap(Arc::new(jwt_auth));
+    }
+    pub fn decode(&self, token: &str) -> std::result::Result<TokenData<Claims>, AuthError> {
+        self.0.load().decode(token)
+    }
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Debug for SwappableJwtAuth {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "Swappable({:?})", self.0.load())
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Clone, PartialEq, Eq, Hash, Debug)]
+pub struct AuthError(pub Cow<'static, str>);
+
+impl Display for AuthError {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        write!(f, "{}", self.0)
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<AuthError> for ApiError {
+    fn from(_value: AuthError) -> Self {
+        // Don't pass on the value of the AuthError as a precautionary measure.
+        // Being intentionally vague in public error communication hurts debugability
+        // but it is more secure.
+        ApiError::Forbidden("JWT authentication error".to_string())
+    }
+}
+
 pub struct JwtAuth {
-    decoding_key: DecodingKey,
+    decoding_keys: Vec<DecodingKey>,
    validation: Validation,
 }

 impl JwtAuth {
-    pub fn new(decoding_key: DecodingKey) -> Self {
+    pub fn new(decoding_keys: Vec<DecodingKey>) -> Self {
        let mut validation = Validation::default();
        validation.algorithms = vec![STORAGE_TOKEN_ALGORITHM];
        // The default 'required_spec_claims' is 'exp'. But we don't want to require
        // expiration.
        validation.required_spec_claims = [].into();
        Self {
-            decoding_key,
+            decoding_keys,
            validation,
        }
    }

-    pub fn from_key_path(key_path: &Path) -> Result<Self> {
-        let public_key = fs::read(key_path)?;
-        Ok(Self::new(DecodingKey::from_ed_pem(&public_key)?))
+    pub fn from_key_path(key_path: &Utf8Path) -> Result<Self> {
+        let metadata = key_path.metadata()?;
+        let decoding_keys = if metadata.is_dir() {
+            let mut keys = Vec::new();
+            for entry in fs::read_dir(key_path)? {
+                let path = entry?.path();
+                if !path.is_file() {
+                    // Ignore directories (don't recurse)
+                    continue;
+                }
+                let public_key = fs::read(path)?;
+                keys.push(DecodingKey::from_ed_pem(&public_key)?);
+            }
+            keys
+        } else if metadata.is_file() {
+            let public_key = fs::read(key_path)?;
+            vec![DecodingKey::from_ed_pem(&public_key)?]
+        } else {
+            anyhow::bail!("path is neither a directory or a file")
+        };
+        if decoding_keys.is_empty() {
+            anyhow::bail!("Configured for JWT auth with zero decoding keys. All JWT gated requests would be rejected.");
+        }
+        Ok(Self::new(decoding_keys))
    }

-    pub fn decode(&self, token: &str) -> Result<TokenData<Claims>> {
-        Ok(decode(token, &self.decoding_key, &self.validation)?)
+    /// Attempt to decode the token with the internal decoding keys.
+    ///
+    /// The function tries the stored decoding keys in succession,
+    /// and returns the first yielding a successful result.
+    /// If there is no working decoding key, it returns the last error.
+    pub fn decode(&self, token: &str) -> std::result::Result<TokenData<Claims>, AuthError> {
+        let mut res = None;
+        for decoding_key in &self.decoding_keys {
+            res = Some(decode(token, decoding_key, &self.validation));
+            if let Some(Ok(res)) = res {
+                return Ok(res);
+            }
+        }
+        if let Some(res) = res {
+            res.map_err(|e| AuthError(Cow::Owned(e.to_string())))
+        } else {
+            Err(AuthError(Cow::Borrowed("no JWT decoding keys configured")))
+        }
    }
 }

@@ -111,9 +184,9 @@ MC4CAQAwBQYDK2VwBCIEID/Drmc1AA6U/znNRWpF3zEGegOATQxfkdWxitcOMsIH
 "#;

    #[test]
-    fn test_decode() -> Result<(), anyhow::Error> {
+    fn test_decode() {
        let expected_claims = Claims {
-            tenant_id: Some(TenantId::from_str("3d1f7595b468230304e0b73cecbcb081")?),
+            tenant_id: Some(TenantId::from_str("3d1f7595b468230304e0b73cecbcb081").unwrap()),
            scope: Scope::Tenant,
        };

@@ -132,28 +205,24 @@ MC4CAQAwBQYDK2VwBCIEID/Drmc1AA6U/znNRWpF3zEGegOATQxfkdWxitcOMsIH
        let encoded_eddsa = "eyJhbGciOiJFZERTQSIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJzY29wZSI6InRlbmFudCIsInRlbmFudF9pZCI6IjNkMWY3NTk1YjQ2ODIzMDMwNGUwYjczY2VjYmNiMDgxIiwiaXNzIjoibmVvbi5jb250cm9scGxhbmUiLCJleHAiOjE3MDkyMDA4NzksImlhdCI6MTY3ODQ0MjQ3OX0.U3eA8j-uU-JnhzeO3EDHRuXLwkAUFCPxtGHEgw6p7Ccc3YRbFs2tmCdbD9PZEXP-XsxSeBQi1FY0YPcT3NXADw";

        // Check it can be validated with the public key
-        let auth = JwtAuth::new(DecodingKey::from_ed_pem(TEST_PUB_KEY_ED25519)?);
-        let claims_from_token = auth.decode(encoded_eddsa)?.claims;
+        let auth = JwtAuth::new(vec![DecodingKey::from_ed_pem(TEST_PUB_KEY_ED25519).unwrap()]);
+        let claims_from_token = auth.decode(encoded_eddsa).unwrap().claims;
        assert_eq!(claims_from_token, expected_claims);
-
-        Ok(())
    }

    #[test]
-    fn test_encode() -> Result<(), anyhow::Error> {
+    fn test_encode() {
        let claims = Claims {
-            tenant_id: Some(TenantId::from_str("3d1f7595b468230304e0b73cecbcb081")?),
+            tenant_id: Some(TenantId::from_str("3d1f7595b468230304e0b73cecbcb081").unwrap()),
            scope: Scope::Tenant,
        };

-        let encoded = encode_from_key_file(&claims, TEST_PRIV_KEY_ED25519)?;
+        let encoded = encode_from_key_file(&claims, TEST_PRIV_KEY_ED25519).unwrap();

        // decode it back
-        let auth = JwtAuth::new(DecodingKey::from_ed_pem(TEST_PUB_KEY_ED25519)?);
-        let decoded = auth.decode(&encoded)?;
+        let auth = JwtAuth::new(vec![DecodingKey::from_ed_pem(TEST_PUB_KEY_ED25519).unwrap()]);
+        let decoded = auth.decode(&encoded).unwrap();

        assert_eq!(decoded.claims, claims);
-
-        Ok(())
    }
 }
--- a/libs/utils/src/backoff.rs
+++ b/libs/utils/src/backoff.rs
@@ -1,18 +1,31 @@
 use std::fmt::{Debug, Display};

 use futures::Future;
+use tokio_util::sync::CancellationToken;

 pub const DEFAULT_BASE_BACKOFF_SECONDS: f64 = 0.1;
 pub const DEFAULT_MAX_BACKOFF_SECONDS: f64 = 3.0;

-pub async fn exponential_backoff(n: u32, base_increment: f64, max_seconds: f64) {
+pub async fn exponential_backoff(
+    n: u32,
+    base_increment: f64,
+    max_seconds: f64,
+    cancel: &CancellationToken,
+) {
    let backoff_duration_seconds =
        exponential_backoff_duration_seconds(n, base_increment, max_seconds);
    if backoff_duration_seconds > 0.0 {
        tracing::info!(
            "Backoff: waiting {backoff_duration_seconds} seconds before processing with the task",
        );
-        tokio::time::sleep(std::time::Duration::from_secs_f64(backoff_duration_seconds)).await;
+
+        drop(
+            tokio::time::timeout(
+                std::time::Duration::from_secs_f64(backoff_duration_seconds),
+                cancel.cancelled(),
+            )
+            .await,
+        )
    }
 }

@@ -24,28 +37,57 @@ pub fn exponential_backoff_duration_seconds(n: u32, base_increment: f64, max_sec
    }
 }

+/// Configure cancellation for a retried operation: when to cancel (the token), and
+/// what kind of error to return on cancellation
+pub struct Cancel<E, CF>
+where
+    E: Display + Debug + 'static,
+    CF: Fn() -> E,
+{
+    token: CancellationToken,
+    on_cancel: CF,
+}
+
+impl<E, CF> Cancel<E, CF>
+where
+    E: Display + Debug + 'static,
+    CF: Fn() -> E,
+{
+    pub fn new(token: CancellationToken, on_cancel: CF) -> Self {
+        Self { token, on_cancel }
+    }
+}
+
 /// retries passed operation until one of the following conditions are met:
 /// Encountered error is considered as permanent (non-retryable)
 /// Retries have been exhausted.
 /// `is_permanent` closure should be used to provide distinction between permanent/non-permanent errors
 /// When attempts cross `warn_threshold` function starts to emit log warnings.
 /// `description` argument is added to log messages. Its value should identify the `op` is doing
-pub async fn retry<T, O, F, E>(
+/// `cancel` argument is required: any time we are looping on retry, we should be using a CancellationToken
+/// to drop out promptly on shutdown.
+pub async fn retry<T, O, F, E, CF>(
    mut op: O,
    is_permanent: impl Fn(&E) -> bool,
    warn_threshold: u32,
    max_retries: u32,
    description: &str,
+    cancel: Cancel<E, CF>,
 ) -> Result<T, E>
 where
    // Not std::error::Error because anyhow::Error doesnt implement it.
    // For context see https://github.com/dtolnay/anyhow/issues/63
-    E: Display + Debug,
+    E: Display + Debug + 'static,
    O: FnMut() -> F,
    F: Future<Output = Result<T, E>>,
+    CF: Fn() -> E,
 {
    let mut attempts = 0;
    loop {
+        if cancel.token.is_cancelled() {
+            return Err((cancel.on_cancel)());
+        }
+
        let result = op().await;
        match result {
            Ok(_) => {
@@ -80,6 +122,7 @@ where
            attempts,
            DEFAULT_BASE_BACKOFF_SECONDS,
            DEFAULT_MAX_BACKOFF_SECONDS,
+            &cancel.token,
        )
        .await;
        attempts += 1;
@@ -132,6 +175,7 @@ mod tests {
            1,
            1,
            "work",
+            Cancel::new(CancellationToken::new(), || -> io::Error { unreachable!() }),
        )
        .await;

@@ -157,6 +201,7 @@ mod tests {
            2,
            2,
            "work",
+            Cancel::new(CancellationToken::new(), || -> io::Error { unreachable!() }),
        )
        .await
        .unwrap();
@@ -179,6 +224,7 @@ mod tests {
            2,
            2,
            "work",
+            Cancel::new(CancellationToken::new(), || -> io::Error { unreachable!() }),
        )
        .await
        .unwrap_err();
--- a/Show More
+++ b/Show More